Within the framework of the unified Yugoslavia, Croatia ranked second after Slovenia in terms of industrial development and output per capita (this figure was about a third higher than the national average). The republic specialized in mining (oil, coal, bauxite), shipping and tourism.

The formation of the independent Republic of Croatia and the subsequent civil war of 1991-1995 provoked hyperinflation and a sharp decline in the level of economic development. The country's economy before 1996 can be regarded as a wartime economy, when 40% of government spending was directed to defense. Between 1989 and 1994, the economic decline in Croatia reached 46%.

The heavy industry of modern Croatia includes metallurgical and steel-rolling enterprises, machine-building plants, hydroelectric power stations, shipyards, factories for the production of cement and reinforced concrete products.

Leading Industries– chemical, petrochemical, electrical and electronic, food, textile, woodworking, pharmaceutical. The country has breweries, wine and vodka factories, meat-packing plants, enterprises for the production of leather products, sugar, and for the processing of agricultural products.

The northeastern plains of Croatia are the main breadbasket of the country. Grain crops (corn and wheat), sugar beets, soybeans, hemp, flax, sunflowers, potatoes, fodder crops (clover, alfalfa, fodder beet), cattle are grown here. On the slopes of the hills and in the low mountains, they are traditionally engaged in horticulture (mostly plums and apples are grown) and viticulture. The main crops in the mountainous regions are barley and potatoes. Istria and Dalmatia are characterized by viticulture and winemaking, the cultivation of early vegetables and southern fruits, including citrus and olives.

Since the autumn of 1993, the country began to implement an economic stabilization plan. In such sectors of the national economy as tourism, mining, shipbuilding, oil refining, many enterprises were privatized, and by 1995, with the assistance of foreign investors, programs for their reconstruction began to be implemented. However, after the Croatian invasion of Krajina in August 1995, this assistance was curtailed.

Since 1997, the process of denationalization of the country's largest enterprises has accelerated, including railways, the INA oil and gas concern, which was built with the expectation of supplying petroleum products for the whole of Yugoslavia, and the electric power industry.

The total economically active population is estimated at 1.68 million people. Unemployment is growing and remains at a high level: if in 1996 the unemployed were 15.9% of the able-bodied population, then in 1997 - 16.6%, in 1998 - 17.2%, in 1999 - 19.1%, in 2000 - 22% . In this regard, tens of thousands of workers left for the West in search of work.

The annual growth rate of industrial production since 1997 was estimated at 3–5%, but in 2000 it dropped to 1.7%. The inflation rate in 1996 was 3.5% (in 1993 it exceeded 1500%), in 1997 - 4.6%, in 1999 - 4.4%, in 2000 - 6%. At the same time, there has been a steady growth in GDP: in 1997 - 18.92 billion dollars, in 1998 - 20.6 billion, in 2003 - 47.05 billion dollars. At the same time, GDP growth (in 1990 prices) in 1998 amounted to 2.5%, in 2003 - 4.3% (in 1999 there was a decrease in GDP by 0.4% compared to the previous year). GDP per capita in 1992 was $1,800; in 1993, $2,705; in 1994, $2,974; in 1995, $3,487 (62.5% of the 1989 level); reached $10,600. In the structure of GDP, the share of the service sector, 71% (1999), is ahead of the share of industry (19%) and agriculture (10%). The share of the service sector is increasing, in particular due to the revival since 2000 of the tourism business in maritime Croatia.

Croatia is characterized by a developed transport system. Thus, in 1997 the length of railways reached 2.3 thousand km, motor roads - 27.8 thousand km (23.5 thousand km with hard surface, including 330 km of expressways). Zagreb is connected by highways with Slovenia, Yugoslavia and Hungary. The Adriatic Highway connects all the main cities of coastal Croatia. The channel of the Sava was navigable for almost its entire length, as well as the channel of the border river Danube before the hostilities. To restore navigation on inland waterways, it is necessary to carry out work to clear the beds of these rivers. On the coast of the Adriatic Sea, there are several seaports that provide sea transportation not only to Croatia and the former Yugoslavia, but also to a number of other European countries. The largest ports are Rijeka, in the Gulf of Rijeka, in the north and Ploce, at the mouth of the Neretva, in the south, the smaller ones are Pula, Split, Sibenik, Dubrovnik. The Croatian merchant fleet consists of 53 vessels with a carrying capacity of more than 1,000 gross register tons each, with a total tonnage of 631,853 gross register tons. In 1999, 22 airports operated in the country. An oil pipeline 670 km long, a 20-km oil product pipeline and a gas pipeline 310 km long pass through the territory of Croatia.

Croatia is gradually forming a foreign market. Thus, in 1999, the volume of exports of goods and services amounted to 4.3 billion dollars. Transport equipment, products of the chemical and petrochemical industries, textiles, and foodstuffs are exported. The main export partners are Italy (18%), Germany (15.7%), Bosnia and Herzegovina (12.8%), Slovenia (10.6%), Austria (6.2%). Imports amounted to 7.8 billion dollars. Croatia imports cars, transport and electrical equipment, fuel and lubricants, food. The main import partners are Germany (18.5%), Italy (15.9%), Russia (8.6%), Slovenia (7.9%), Austria (7.1%).

During the 1990s, external debt increased. In 1997, it was estimated at 31.1% of GDP (in 1996 - 26.6%, in 1995 - 25%), in 1999 it reached 9.3 billion dollars in absolute terms. In 1998, the country's budget revenues amounted to 6 billion. dollars, expenditure - 4.7 billion dollars.

Since 2000, the government has stepped up foreign economic relations and set a goal to increase the investment attractiveness of the main industries. At the same time, it is taking steps to stabilize the financial system and reduce external debt.

The post-Tudzhman government is more focused on joining Western European structures (EU, NATO) and modifies the country's economic development accordingly. In general, despite the significant destruction caused by hostilities (damage is estimated at $ 18.7 billion), Croatia still remains the second (after Slovenia) most economically developed state among the former republics of the SFRY.

The Republic of Serbia has an area of 88.4 thousand square meters. km, population 10,150,265 million people and borders on Macedonia in the south, Bulgaria and Romania in the east, Hungary in the north, Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina in the west, Montenegro and Albania in the southwest. Three regions stand out: Serbia proper, which in 1991 was inhabited by 5.82 million people, and autonomous regions - Vojvodina (2 million) and Kosovo (1.95 million). In 1999, there was a large wave of emigration of Albanians from Kosovo, and in 2000-2001, the emigration of Kosovo Serbs. GDP-4400. EAN-2.961. GDP annually - 5.9%. Unemployment-31.6%.

a griculture: 16.6%
industry: 25.5%
services: 57.9%

Exports-commodities: manufactured goods, food and live animals, machinery and transport equipment

The population is dominated by Serbs (62%) and Albanians (17%). Montenegrins (5%), Hungarians (3%) and a number of national minorities also live in Serbia. Before the outbreak of hostilities in 1999, Serbs made up 85% of the population of Serbia proper, 54% in Vojvodina and 13% in Kosovo; Hungarians and Croats are numerous minorities in Vojvodina. Most Serbs are Orthodox Christians. Muslims are few in Serbia proper and make up the majority in Kosovo.

State device. After World War II, in accordance with the constitution of 1946, Serbia became one of the six republics in the federal Yugoslav state. The Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Serbia was adopted in 1963.

In September 1990, a new Serbian constitution was adopted, which established a unicameral parliament - the Assembly (250 seats), whose deputies are elected for a four-year term. The head of the Republic of Serbia is the President, elected for a five-year term in general direct elections. The highest body of executive power is the Council of Ministers, headed by the chairman, who is elected by the parliament from among the candidates proposed by the president. The chairman forms the government, which is approved by parliament.

The Republic of Montenegro is part of the Union of Serbia and Montenegro. Its area is 13,812 sq. km. Montenegro is located on the Dinaric Highlands and has access to the Adriatic Sea; borders with Albania in the southeast, Serbia in the northeast and east, Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina in the northwest. Three regions are distinguished in Montenegro: fertile lowlands along the coast of the Adriatic Sea, in the basin of Lake Shkoder and adjacent sections of the valleys of the Zeta and Moraca rivers in the southwest; mountainous western region (Old Montenegro), west of the Zeta river; mountains in the north and east (known as Brda) used for pasture and forestry purposes. The capital of the republic is Podgorica (former Titograd, 1945–1992). Until 1945 the capital was the city of Cetinje.

642.5 thousand people live in Montenegro. The population is dominated by Montenegrins (61.7%), the other most numerous national groups are Bosans (Bosnians-Muslims, or Muslims as an ethnic community, 13%), Serbs (9.3%), Albanians (6.5%). Most Montenegrins and Serbs traditionally belong to the Serbian Orthodox Church, and a significant part of the Bosans and Albanians are Muslims. Small communities of Croats, Serbs and Albanians practice Catholicism.

State device. According to the Yugoslav constitution of 1946, Montenegro became one of the six federal republics. The communist leadership of Montenegro, after 44 years of rule, was removed in January 1989 under the pressure of demonstrations organized by the pro-Serb opposition. As a result, the most important posts in the republic were occupied by new political forces.

October 12, 1992 was adopted by the Constitution of Montenegro, according to which the supreme legislative body is the Assembly, consisting of 77 deputies. The President of Montenegro is elected for a five-year term by direct secret ballot on the basis of universal equal suffrage.

The post of President of Montenegro has been vacant since 2002, as the required number of voters did not come to the presidential elections. And about. President - Filip Vujanovic (Democratic Party of Socialists of Montenegro). The head of the government of Montenegro since 2003 is the leader of the DSHR, Milomir (Milo) Djukanovic.

Economy and social structure. Until the 19th century the main driving forces for the development of society in Montenegro and Brda were blood feuds, guerrilla warfare, disintegration and merging of clans. Until the Berlin Congress of 1878, according to the decisions of which several small settlements were transferred to Montenegro, including Podgorica, there were no cities in the country. The state was engaged in laying roads suitable for the passage of horse-drawn carriages; organized postal, telegraph and telephone communications; stood for the protection of the principles of private property; controlled the public education system

Until the end of the 20th century. The main source of livelihood for approximately 80% of the Montenegrin population remained agriculture and cattle breeding. Due to unfavorable natural conditions (mountainous terrain, low soil fertility) and backward agricultural technology, no more than 2/3 of the food consumed is produced in the region. Montenegro specializes mainly in the cultivation of corn, fishing and cheese making. Tobacco remains the main cash crop, although cotton is also grown in the more fertile valleys. The leading industries are woodworking, shipbuilding, building materials and tobacco processing. In addition, in Montenegro, much attention is paid to the development of tourism, electrification, construction of railways and roads. In connection with the depreciation of the dinar, the government of Montenegro introduced the German mark as a parallel means of payment in 1999, from November 13, 2000, the circulation of the Yugoslav dinar was banned, and the mark remained the only monetary unit of the republic. Since January 1, 2002, the euro has been in circulation.

The introduction of institutional changes and the creation of a truly functioning common trade policy and a single market in Serbia and Montenegro are an indispensable requirement for stabilization and subsequent accession to the EU. The European Commission has already begun work in this direction and adopted the Plan for the Creation of a Single Internal Market in Serbia7. Thus, Chris Patten, in the Progress Report on Serbia and Montenegro (October 2004), notes that the EU has come to the final stage in the issue of participation of Serbia and Montenegro in the stabilization program. Moreover, the commissioner expressed the readiness of the European Union to cooperate separately with each subject of the state formation of Serbia and Montenegro on the problems of economic development, trade and regional policy8.

Macedonia

Republic of Macedonia- an independent state in Europe, the former federal republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY). It is located on the Balkan Peninsula in southeast Europe. Often referred to simply as Macedonia, but should not be confused with the state of Ancient Macedonia and the historical region of Macedonia in neighboring Greece. The Republic of Macedonia occupies about 38% of the area of historical Macedonia and has about 44% of its population.

The territory of the Republic of Macedonia previously formed the southernmost part of Yugoslavia. Its modern borders were established shortly after World War II, when Socialist Republic of Macedonia- thus, the Macedonians were recognized as an independent people within Yugoslavia. In 1991, with the disintegration of Yugoslavia into separate states, the territory of Macedonia has not changed. At the same time, the emergence of this separate state led to endless political disputes with Greece over the use of the names "Macedonia" and "Macedonians" - so for a long time in official documents this state was called the "Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia."

· 1991 - declaration of sovereignty and referendum on the independence of Macedonia. The first President of Macedonia - Kiro Gligorov (1991-1999).

· 1992 - the withdrawal of parts of the Yugoslav army.

· 1993 - introduction of "blue helmets" (the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia) by the UN.

· 1995 - after the assassination attempt on Kiro Gligorov, Stoyan Andov was acting head of state for a short period.

As a result of the war in Kosovo in 1999 some 360,000 Kosovo Albanians fled to Macedonian territory. The refugees soon left the country, but a little later, the local Albanians, following their example, put forward a demand for autonomy for the regions of the republic with a predominantly Albanian population.

· 1999-2004 - President Boris Traikovsky.

· 2001 March - August - Albanian uprising that engulfed the north and west of the country (especially the Tetovo region). The Albanian National Liberation Army (leader Ali Ahmeti) began military guerrilla operations against the regular army of Macedonia. The confrontation was only ended by NATO intervention, as a result of which the Albanians were granted limited legal and cultural autonomy (the official status of the Albanian language, the amnesty of the rebels, the Albanian police in the Albanian regions).

· 2002 - sporadic relapses of the Albanian-Macedonian inter-ethnic conflict.

Official name	Republic of Macedonia
State flag
Coat of arms
Capital
Official language	Macedonian
Political structure	Parliamentary republic
The president	Branko Crvenkovski
Currency	Macedonian denar
Neighbours	Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Albania,
Climate
Territory
Location	Southeast Europe, north of Greece
Square : general land water
Coastline
Neighbours	It borders Serbia in the north, Bulgaria in the east, Greece in the southeast, and Albania in the west.
Climate	Warm; summer and autumn are dry; relatively cold winter with heavy snowfalls
Natural resources	copper, gold, copper, nickel, lead, manganese, asbestos, iron ore, zinc, chromite, wood, tungsten, gypsum
land use arable land cultivated land	22.01% 1.79% 76.2% (2005)
natural hazards	high seismic hazard
Population
Age structure: 0-14 15-64 over 65
Average age general male female	(forecast for 2007)
population growth
Lifespan(forecast 2007): general male female	74.21 years old 71.73 years old 76.88 years old
ethnic groups	Macedonians 64.2%, Albanians 25.2%, Turks 3.9%, Greeks 2.7%, Serbs 1.8% (as of 2002)
Literacy Rate
GDP (purchasing power parity)	$221.4 billion
Share of GDP per Agriculture industry service sector	9% 29% 62% (2006)
Working population
Share of working population in Agriculture industry service sector
Unemployment rate
Population below the poverty line
Main agricultural products	tobacco, wine, grapes, vegetables, milk, eggs
Industrial goods	food and beverages, chemicals, iron, steel, cement, energy, pharmaceuticals, textiles.
Exported goods	foodstuffs, beverages, tobacco, textile products, iron and steel, various manufactured goods.
Export - partners	Serbia and Montenegro 22.5%, Germany 17.8%, Greece 15.3%, Italy 8.3% (2005)
Imported goods	machinery and equipment, automobiles, chemicals, fuels, food
Import - partners	Russia 13.25, Germany 10.4%, Greece 9.2%, Serbia and Montenegro 8.2%, Bulgaria 7.3%, Italy 6% (2005)

Geographical positionCroatia
The area of the country is 56538 square kilometers. The Republic of Croatia is located in Central Europe, bordering in the north - with Slovenia, in the east - with Hungary and Serbia, in the southeast - with Bosnia and Herzegovina, in the south - with Montenegro. From the west, the country is washed by the Adriatic Sea.
The number of islands is 1185, of which 66 are inhabited.
The highest point - Mount Dinara (1831 meters) is located near the city of Knin.
The capital of Croatia is the city of Zagreb.

Relief Most of the territory of Croatia is located at an altitude of more than 500 meters above sea level, but there are no mountains above 2100 meters. The Adriatic coast is separated from the interior by mountain ranges (Gorsky Kotar, Velebit, Velika and Mala - Kapela, Pleshevitsa, Dinara). The highest peaks are Tsintsar (2085 m.), Velika-top (1890 m.), Dinara (1830 m.), St. Yure (1762 m.), Vaganski (1757 m.), Pleshevitsa (1648 m.), Risnyak (1528 m.), Kula (1534 m.), Uchka (1396 m.).
The Croatian Adriatic coast is one of the most indented in the world. It has 1185 islands and islets with a total coastline of 4058 kilometers. The length of the coast of the mainland in a conditional straight line is 600 kilometers, and given its indentation - 1778 kilometers.

Rivers
The Danube (188 kilometers) and its tributaries the Sava (562 kilometers) and Drava (505 kilometers) flow deep into the country and empty into the Black Sea. The few rivers that carry their waters to the Adriatic Sea through narrow gorges have strong elevation changes along their entire length, forming a large number of waterfalls.

Lakes The largest lake in Croatia - Vransko (30.7 square kilometers) is located near Biograd. The most attractive are the Plitvice Lakes (a chain of 16 lakes with the Korana River); Red and Blue lakes near Imotski,
a freshwater lake on the island of Cres and the lakes of Vizovacsko and Prokljansko. Artificial lakes are well known - Lokve and Bayer in Gorski Kotar, Trakoshcan in the Croatian Zagorje and peruca on the Cetina River in Dalmatia. Lake Kopachevo and the wetlands around it are the habitat of birds in the largest ornithological reserve in Europe - Kopachki - Rit.

Adriatic Sea The sea washes the Balkan and Apennine peninsulas, its average depth is 252 meters, the northwestern part is shallow (maximum 23 meters in the Gulf of Trieste), while in the south its depth reaches 1200 meters. The waters of the Adriatic near the Croatian coast are clean and transparent, since the mountain rivers do not carry silt and sand into it. In August, the water warms up to degrees Celsius. In addition, according to its characteristics, it meets all the strictest standards of the World Health Organization. The salt content is 34 milligrams per liter. This means that the Adriatic Sea is twice as salty as the Black Sea.

GENERAL AND POLITICO-ECONOMIC

Year of foundation (foundation)

The declaration on secession from Yugoslavia was issued in June 1991.

Formally, independence was proclaimed on October 8, 1991.

Territory 56.6 thousand sq. km
Population, ethnic composition and religion
4.68 million people (July 1999).

78.1% - Croats, 12.2% - Serbs, 0.9% - Muslims, 0.5% - Hungarians, 0.5% - Slovenes.

The main religion is Catholicism (76.5%), Orthodoxy is also practiced (Serbian Orthodox Church, 11.1%), Islam (1.2%) and Protestantism (0.4%).

State system Parliamentary republic.

The Constitution of the Republic was proclaimed on December 22, 1990.

The head of state is the president, elected by direct vote for a term of 5 years.

The legislature is a bicameral parliament (Sabor), consisting of the House of Representatives (Zastupnicki Dom, 80 seats) and the Chamber of County (Communities) (Zupanski Dom, 68 seats), the term of parliament is 4 years.

Executive power is exercised by the government, which consists of the prime minister and ministers. The head of government is the chairman.

The government was formed on January 27, 2000. The last changes in the government were made on February 5, 2000.

The government coalition includes: SDP-PDHR, HSLP, Istrian Democratic Sabor (IDS), Croatian People's Party (HPP), Croatian Peasants' Party (HKP), Liberal Party (LP) ..

The President is Stipe Mesic (since February 18, 2000, KhND).

CULTURE and ATTRACTIONS

The peculiarity of Croatian culture in the Slavic world is largely due to the fact that Croatia was the only country of the Western (Roman) Patriarchate in which the Roman Catholic Church allowed liturgies not in Latin. The Slavic liturgy in Croatia was written in the Glagolitic script in Church Slavonic, a language related to Croatian, but distinct from the spoken language.

Over time, secular literature began to develop, written in the Glagolitic script in a mixture of Church Slavonic and Croatian. The golden era of Croatian Glagolitic literature (1075–1475) was a unique phenomenon. During the early Middle Ages in the rest of Western and Central Europe, the European languages (in their literary form) were still in the process of becoming, competing with the Latin language. In Croatia, many literary works appeared in the local language, representing all secular literary genres.

In addition, a number of liturgical works - lectionaries and psalters - from the Dalmatian coastal zone of Croatia testified to the flowering of Croatian literature in the cities of the Adriatic (Rab, Zadar, Sibenik, Trogir, Split, Hvar, Korcula, Dubrovnik and Kotor became the centers of the Croatian Renaissance). Famous poets and playwrights of this era were Marko Marulić from Dubrovnik (1450–1524), author of numerous religious, historical and poetic works; as well as Marin Drzic (1510–1567), an outstanding comedian. Both of them, on the one hand, experienced a strong Italian influence, and on the other hand, they retained the tradition of using the Glagolitic alphabet. Marulić paid tribute to his anonymous predecessors, the founders (i.e. initiators), whose style he followed in writing the epic poem on the biblical story Judith (1501), which is traditionally considered a classic work of Croatian literature.

If other Slavic countries were in cultural isolation or oriented in literature and art to the east, then in Croatia the artists turned their gaze to the west, borrowing and developing every new kind of European style, from the Middle Ages to the present day. The Illyrian movement (Illyrianism) of the 1830s and 1840s, while shaping modern Croatian culture, favored the achievements of the Renaissance and the Baroque period. But in the 20th century works of a socio-political orientation, such as Miroslav Krlezha (1893–1981), reflect a tradition of rebellion against Western European culture rather than blind adherence to it.

Modern Croatian art and sculpture developed in two main directions. The first includes the work of Ivan Meštrović (1883–1962) in the field of modernist monumental sculpture; Meštrović sought to create a national style in plastic art based on the European tradition. The second direction is represented by the school of primitivist artists (among them Ivan Generalich, b. 1914), who were looking for a national style in the images of village life in rural Croatia. In music, the search for a national style was also noticeable, especially in the works of Ivan Zayets (1831–1914) and Jacob Gotovac (1895–1982). In 1842, the national literary and educational organization Matica Croatian was founded, which played a key role in the cultural and literary life of Croatia. Cinematography in Croatia has achieved international recognition thanks to cartoons created by directors of the so-called. Zagreb school.

CITIES OF CROATIA

The largest cities in Croatia are Zagreb, Split, Rijeka. Their architecture is very diverse. The building of the commercial cities of Dalmatia (Split, Zadar) developed under the influence of the Romanesque style, many cities in northern Croatia retained their Gothic appearance. The construction of numerous Croatian castles and fortresses (Varaždin, Karlovac) dates back to the 15th-18th centuries. World-famous resorts are concentrated on the coast and islands of Croatia. The largest of them are Dubrovnik and Opatija. Several reasons why it is necessary to have a rest in Croatia.

The capital of Croatia is Zagreb (population in 1991). Other major cities are (population according to the 1991 census) Split (, Rijeka (, Osijek (, Zadar and Dubrovnik)

HISTORY OF CROATIA

Ancient history

The Romans conquered the territory of present-day Croatia in the 3rd–1st centuries. BC e. For most of the territory stretching from the middle reaches of the Danube to the Adriatic coast south to the northern part of present-day Albania, they used the name Illyricum, the area between the Sava and the Danube was called Pannonia, and the area between the Adriatic Sea and the Sava was called Dalmatia.

Roman colonization led to a partial Romanization of the ancient inhabitants of Illyricum - the Celts, who settled in Pannonia in the 4th century BC. BC e., Greek sea colonists and the Illyrians of the Dinaric mountains, who lived in this territory for two millennia before the Roman conquest. The Romans began to mine minerals in Dalmatia, fill up the swamps in Pannonia, grow grapes on the Danube, improve agricultural methods, build roads and bridges, and founded cities.

In the 3rd–6th centuries waves of barbarian tribes (Huns, Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Lombards, Slavs, Avars), attracted by the riches of the Roman provinces, invaded the territory of present-day Croatia.

First Croatian State

In the 6th–7th centuries Slavs and Avars destroyed many cities in the west of the Balkan Peninsula. Then, during the reign of the Byzantine emperor Heraclius (reigned 610-641), two Slavic groups of Croats and Serbs settled respectively in the western and central regions of the Balkans. They managed to create new tribal unions, impose their tribal names on the Slavic settlers who had settled here earlier, and, together with their predecessors, began to Slavicize a significant part of Pannonia and Dalmatia. However, when the Franks conquered Croatia in 800, Charlemagne recognized the Croatian "princes" (princes) as his vassals and appointed one of them the prince of the Littoral region (Dalmatian Croatia), and the other of the Sava region (Posava Croatia).

In 819, Prince Ludevit Posavsky raised an uprising (it was crushed in 823), seeking to put an end to the policy of feudalization and Christianization, which was carried out by the Franks. Speaking on the side of the Franks, Borne, the prince of Dalmatian Croatia, managed, in the end, to expand his possessions to the river. Sava, i.e., take possession of Pannonian Croatia. Thus, after the decline of the Carolingian empire in the West in the 9th c. the first united Croatian state arose.

Prince Tomislav (reigned 910-928), appointed proconsul of Byzantium in the cities and islands of Dalmatia, proclaimed himself "King of Croatia" (925), and the Pope recognized his right to this title. The new kingdom flourished until 1000, when Dalmatia fell under Venetian rule; shortly thereafter, all of Croatia came under Byzantine rule.

Croatia regained full independence under Peter Kresimir IV (reigned 1058–1074), its eminent medieval prince, who annexed Byzantine Dalmatia to Croatia as well as Slavonia. In the religious struggle, he favored the reformist party, weakening the influence of local non-Catholic traditions. His successor, Dmitar Zvonimir (reigned 1074–1089), continued this policy, but lost the support of many Croats due to his dependence on the papacy. After his death, stronger powers sought to establish their power in Croatia - Byzantium, Hungary, Venice, the papacy and the Normans from southern Italy.

Hungarian era

The dynastic struggle between the main Croatian clans weakened Croatia, and, in the end, King Kalman (Knizhnik) from the Hungarian Arpad dynasty took Dalmatia from Venice and established his power in Croatia. Trying to prevent an uprising against his rule, the tribal leaders (zhupans) of Lesser Croatia (the territory between Dalmatia and Slavonia) in 1102 concluded an agreement with Kalman, who sanctioned the formation of a personal union between the kingdoms of Hungary and Croatia under the rule of the king of Hungary, freed the Croatian aristocracy from paying taxes and guaranteed the inviolability of their property.

The Hungarian-Croat Union (Pacta Conventa) dealt a mortal blow to the Croatian tribal system. Forestry and mining began to develop in Croatia, a three-field system of agriculture was introduced in a number of regions, coins began to replace furs and skins as a means of exchange, and favorable opportunities were created for the development of foreign trade.

At the same time, large feudal landowners strengthened their power, acquiring large estates in Croatia and especially in Slavonia. The smaller nobility, free peasants and townspeople rebelled against them and in 1222 forced the Hungarian king Andrew (Endre) II (reigned 1205–1235) to issue a “golden bull”, which limited royal powers and recognized the rights of the small estate nobility and free people. In 1241 and 1242 there was a Mongol invasion and the ruin of Pannonia and Dalmatia. The economic revival was associated with the name of King Bela IV (reigned 1235–1270), who invited foreign artisans and merchants and extended privileges to many urban communities. During this period, many cities with Magdeburg rights arose in the northern part of Croatia. The largest of them was Hradec (1242), which in the 19th century. merged with Kaptol (founded in 1094), forming modern Zagreb. When the last king of the Arpad dynasty died (1301), a dynastic struggle unfolded, culminating in the victory of the Angevin house, which ruled Croatia in 1301-1382. After 1301, the monarchy was formally elective, and not only representatives of the House of Anjou, but also the Luxembourg dynasty, domestic kings, and the Polish-Lithuanian Jagiellonian dynasty ascended the throne.

During this period, the Croatian princes did not actually reckon with royal authority. The king did not establish administrative bodies, did not collect taxes, and did not grant estates in Croatia. These powers were assigned to the ban (viceroy of the king) and the Croatian noble assembly - Sabor (parliament). Some magnates, such as the princes of Bribir in the 13th and 14th centuries, made the title of ban hereditary.

In the 15th century Venice and the Ottoman Turks captured large parts of Croatian territory. In 1493 the Croatian nobles were defeated on the Krbava plateau, in the western part of Croatia. Attempts by the Croats to get support from the European powers were not successful.

On August 29, 1526, the Turks defeated the Hungarian-Croatian troops at Mohacs and occupied a significant part of Hungary and Croatia. In the hope that the Habsburgs would help in the fight against the Turks, Ferdinand I of Habsburg was elected king of Bohemia, Croatia and Hungary. In much of Hungary and Slavonia occupied by the Turks, the nobility favored Janos Zapolya, a Hungarian nobleman of Croatian origin, who negotiated a compromise agreement with the Turks and received their support. A civil war was added to the Hungarian-Croatian defeat.

Located at the crossroads of routes leading to Central Europe and the Mediterranean, the Republic of Croatia simultaneously belongs to the Mediterranean and Central European-Danubian regions. It extends in the form of an arc from the Danube River in the northeast to the west to the Istrian peninsula and south to Boka Kotorska.

On land, Croatia borders five countries, and the total length of its borders is 2028 km. The country has land borders with Hungary (329 km), Serbia (241 km), Bosnia and Herzegovina (932 km), and with Slovenia (546 km) and Montenegro (25 km) it borders both by land and by sea. With Italy, the country has an exclusively maritime border.

The land area of the Republic of Croatia is 56,538 sq. km, the area of its territorial waters is 31,067 sq. km, - thus, the Republic of Croatia occupies a total area of 87,605 sq. km. km. The total length of its coastline is 5,835 km, of which 1,778 km fall on the continental part, and 4,057 km on the island. The direct distance between the extreme capes of the Croatian continental coastline is 559 km. The continental coastline of the country is significantly indented, and in the distant past this had a huge impact on the creation of numerous ports and marinas, and in the last 100 years - on the development of picturesque tourist centers. There are about 1185 islands and small islets in Croatia along the Adriatic coast, of which 66 islands are inhabited.

The largest Croatian island is Krk with a total area of 409 km2.
The longest, as the name might seem, is not the island of Dugi (Long), but the island of Hvar. Its length is 68 km and its area is 300 km2.
The highest island is Brač. Its Vidova Gora (779 m) is the highest point of the Adriatic archipelago.
The most forested island of the Adriatic is Mljet. Almost 72% of its surface is occupied by forests, 22% by cultivated land, and 6% by stones.
The sunniest Adriatic island (and, in general, the sunniest place in Croatia) is Hvar. Here the sun shines 2,718 hours of sunshine per year. At the same time, for the entire Adriatic Sea, the average annual figure is 2,600 hours.

The territory of the northern part of the country is mostly lowlands and plains: the Sava river basin, the hilly plains of Slavonia, Podravina, Posavina. On the Adriatic coast is the Dinaric Highlands with the country's highest mountain Troglav (1,913 m), the Velebit mountain range (maximum height 1,758 m), the Kapela range. Main rivers: Sava, Danube with tributaries Drava and Mura.

In terms of land area and number of inhabitants (according to the latest population census - 4,381,352 people), the Republic of Croatia is in 25th place among European countries. Croatian citizens live in 6,694 localities, with about 20% of the inhabitants living in four large cities (in Zagreb - the main city of about 770,000 inhabitants, as well as in Osijek, Rijeka and Split), with a population of over 100,000 inhabitants, and 51% in 177 cities or urban-type settlements, which occupy 16% of the territory of Croatia. The most densely populated areas are the northwestern regions (over 140 people/sq. km), while the least populated are the areas of Lika, Gorski Kotar, the interior regions of the Istrian peninsula and some islands.

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Geographical position

Croatia is located on the Balkan Peninsula in Southeast Europe. The area of the country is about 56 thousand km 2, the water area is about 33 km 2.

Croatia shares borders with several countries:

In the south with Bosnia and Herzegovina - 932 km, as well as with Montenegro - 25 km;

In the east with Serbia - 241 km;

In the north with Slovenia - 670 km;

In the northwest with Hungary - 329 km.

The country seems to be divided into 2 parts: the Adriatic (an elongated narrow strip along the coast of the Adriatic Sea); and continental, which is located in the Sava river basin.

In the central region of the country, the climate is temperate continental. Summers are hot and dry, winters are cold and wet.

The mountainous region has cool summers and cold winters with lots of snow.

Mediterranean climate on the Adriatic coast. Summers are hot and very dry. Winters are warm and humid.

Average January temperature in different climatic zones:

In the central region from -1 to 3°С;

In the mountainous region from -5 to 0 °С;

On the coast 5-10 °С.

August average temperature:

In the central region 20 - 23 °С;

In the mountains 13 - 18 °С;

On the coast 23 - 26 °C.

Visas, entry rules, customs rules

Since 2012, citizens of the Russian Federation need a Schengen visa to enter the territory of Croatia. Because Croatia joins the EU.

But during the entire tourist season of 2011 - Russian citizens will be able to enter Croatia without visas, but simply on presentation of a passport. A similar opportunity is provided to citizens of Ukraine and Kazakhstan. Citizens of the Russian Federation, Ukraine and Kazakhstan, who entered Croatia without a visa, have the right to stay in the territory of this country without a break for up to 90 days.

In normal times, tourists from Russia entering Croatia must present a tourist voucher, the original invitation or a visa at the border.
At the border, you must present a passport that expires after the end of the trip, an invitation certified by a notary or the Croatian embassy, or a hotel reservation confirmation with a stamp and signature of the responsible manager. The passport is stamped with the date of entry.

If the purpose of the trip is transit or a tourist trip during which a visit to other countries is planned, a visa must be issued in advance by contacting the Croatian Embassy.

Cruise ship passengers traveling to the Adriatic islands along the coast of Croatia require a visa to disembark. Such a visa must be obtained in advance at the Croatian Embassy.

A transit visa is valid for 7 days, other types of visa - up to 3 months. Consular fee $52. Children under 6 years of age do not need to pay a fee.

For citizens of other countries, a visa is issued within a period of 1 day to 1 month.

There is a restriction on the import and export of local currency - 2000 kunas. Foreign currency is imported and exported without restrictions.

You can import duty-free:

200 cigarettes, 50 cigars, 250 grams of tobacco;

Strong spirits up to 1 liter;

Wine up to 2 liters;

Tea or coffee no more than 1 kg;

Sports equipment and radio equipment within personal use.

It is forbidden to import and export: any types of weapons, drugs, antiques, objects of historical value, animal skins.

Upon departure, a fee is charged - $ 8.

Population, political condition

The population of Croatia is 4700 thousand people. Croats make up 90% of the population, the rest of the nations are represented in small numbers (Serbs, Bosnians, Hungarians, Albanians, Italians, Slovenes, Germans, Czechs, Gypsies and others). Serbs - the largest national minority - live mainly in Slavonia, Lika, Gorski Kotar. Italians live in Istria, Hungarians along the Hungarian border, Czechs in Daruvar. The rest of the nations are scattered throughout the country.

Most of the population is people from 15 to 65 years old - 67%. Children under 15 years old - 16.6%, and elderly people over 65 years old - 16.4%. The birth rate per 1000 people is 9.51. The average life expectancy in the country is 74.14 years, with 70.21 for men and 78.29 for women. About 370 thousand people in Croatia do not have a permanent place of residence.

Croatia is a parliamentary republic with a presidential form of government. The legislative branch is the Council of the Republic of Croatia. Consists of 2 chambers - the House of Commons and the House of Representatives. The term of office is 4 years. There are 68 deputies in the House of Commons (3 from each community + 5 appointed by the president).

The executive branch is the cabinet of ministers, formed by the prime minister and approved by parliament.

The president is the head of state. The term of office is 5 years. The President is the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, appoints and dismisses the Prime Minister, his deputies, ministers and other members of the government, calls parliamentary elections, referendums, awards awards, appoints and recalls Croatian diplomatic representatives abroad, represents the country abroad.

What to see

Croatia has a rich history, which is why the country has a huge number of interesting places that are worth visiting.

The Istrian peninsula is the most developed region in Croatia. The combination of green hills and picturesque landscapes of tiny towns make it look like a French or Italian province. With its rich history, azure sea and excellent recreational opportunities, the peninsula is the most popular among tourists. The most attractive cities for travelers are Umag, Rovinj, Pula, Poreč. In Pula, monuments of ancient Roman architecture (the Arena amphitheater, the Roman theater, the Arc de Triomphe, the Colosseum, the Gates of Hercules) are superbly preserved, in some of them performances are still held to this day. In Umag, it is worth seeing the Church of the Holy Rock, built in 1514. You can not ignore the ancient Roman temples, medieval fortress walls and towers located in Poreč. In the city of Rovinj, the city hall, the church of St. Euphemia, the chapel of the Holy Trinity, the Franciscan monastery, and the city museum are interesting.

The Alps are a two-hour drive from Istria, and if you have a Slovenian visa, you can easily go there. Two of the seven national parks can be visited from the peninsula.

Croatia - Plitvice lakes and Brijuni archipelago. The Plitvice Lakes National Park consists of 16 lakes, which are interconnected by 92 different waterfalls. These lakes are protected by the UNESCO Foundation.
From Istria, an excursion to the capital of Croatia - Zagreb is organized. It is best to start your acquaintance with the capital of Croatia from the Old Town, which was surrounded by walls in the Middle Ages. The Ilica shopping area starts from the main street. There are hundreds of small eateries and shops on it, where you can buy gifts and souvenirs. Very close is the National Theater and the Zagreb Tretyakov Gallery - the Mimar Museum. Be sure to visit the Archbishop's Palace, built in the Baroque style. If you want to admire the view of the city, you should visit the Lotrscak tower.. Walking around the city, it is worth seeing and visiting: the Botanical and Zoological Gardens, the remains of fortifications of the XII-XVIII centuries, various museums and art galleries according to your desire and taste, Gothic churches, the Town Hall, the Late Gothic Cathedral, Baroque and Classical palaces, theater building (late 19th century, eclecticism) and stock exchange (1920s).
The island of Korcula is one of the most beautiful islands in Croatia.

Bays and bays, centuries-old pine forests, lush Mediterranean vegetation, completely covering the island. The hot summers soften the mistral wind, creating ideal conditions for surfing. Here you can see the monastery sacristy, paintings by Leonardo da Vinci, a rich collection of icons and much more. In the northwestern part of the island of Mljet is the National Park, which was founded in 1960.

In the 7th century, the Slavic tribes of the Croats migrated to the coast of the Adriatic Sea. Very soon, the Croatian kingdom became the most powerful in the region. But as a result of the dynastic crisis in 1102, the country became dependent on the Kingdom of Hungary. In the 15th century, the Turks began to rule in the north of the country, and Dolmatia fell under the influence of Venice. Only the Republic of Dubrovnik remained independent.

In 1526, an alliance was concluded between Croatia and the Habsburg Empire to counter Turkish expansion.
In 1929, the state was renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. In 1941, under the leadership of Ante Pavelić, the Independent State of Croatia was established. But soon the Pavelic regime fell and the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia or SFRY was created, it included six federal republics: Croatia, Serbia, Slovenia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In 1991 Croatia declared independence. Independence was approved by the international community. After the declaration of independence of Croatia and some other countries, the disintegration of the SFRY began. The integrity of the country was finally restored in 1998. Franjo Tuđman became the first president of the new country.

International trade

The shops

Opening hours of shops on weekdays from 8.00 to 20.00, on weekends until 14.00. During the beach season, small shops are open on the coast.

Tourists in Croatia can buy ceramics, embroidery, leather and wool products, carpets, jewelry.

Aromatherapy lovers can buy oils and herbs. As a gift for a man, you can buy a tie or a fountain pen. From food it is best to buy cheese aged in olive oil. From alcoholic beverages, it is better to give preference to tincture or liquor.

Demography

Age structure:
0-14: 16% (male 368,639/female 349,703)
15 to 64 years old: 67.1% (male 1,499,354/female 1,515,932)
65 years and older: 16.9% (male 292,526/female 467,158)

Average age:
total: 40.6 years
male: 38.6 years
female: 42.3 years (2007)

Population Growth Rate: -0.035%

Birth rate: 9.63 newborns/1000 people

Mortality rate: 11.57 deaths/1000 people

Migration level: 1.58 migratory/per 1000 people

Sex ratio:
at birth: 1.06 male/female
under 15: 1.054 male/female
15 to 64 years old: 0.989 male/female
65 years and older: 0.626 male/female
total population: 0.926 male/female

Child mortality rate:
total: 6.6 deaths/1000 live births
male: 6.6 deaths/1000 live births
women: 6.6 deaths/1000 live births

Life expectancy at birth:
total population: 74.9 years
male: 71.26 years
female: 78.75 years

General birth rate: 1.41 newborns/women

Industry

The leading industries are chemical, petrochemical, electrical and electronic, food, textile, woodworking, and pharmaceutical. The country has breweries, wine and vodka factories, meat-packing plants, enterprises for the production of leather products, sugar, and for the processing of agricultural products.

Flora and fauna

Croatia is an incredibly beautiful country in the Mediterranean. About 4,300 plant species grow on the territory of the country.

In the south of Dalmatia and on the islands of the Adriatic, the vegetation is subtropical - broad-leaved forests of oak, hornbeam, maple, interspersed with shibleak thickets. In the central mountainous regions - oak-hornbeam, beech, and in the upper mountain belt - beech-fir and spruce forests.

In Slavonia, the natural vegetation is steppe and forest-steppe with significant areas of broad-leaved forests of oak, linden, hornbeam, and maple.

Meadows are common in the valleys of large rivers, poplar, willow, oak, and shrubs grow. The richest flora of Croatia on the islands.

Boers, red and green algae grow in the waters of the Adriatic Sea.

The animal world is represented by a smaller variety of individuals. In the alpine forests there are brown bear, forest cat, pine and stone martens, hares, foxes, wolves, deer, chamois, roe deer, badger. Snakes and lizards live in the treeless, well-heated slopes of the Dinaric Highlands. Turtles are common in coastal areas. In Croatia, there are various types of birds: eagles, kites, capercaillie partridges, storks, gulls and some waterfowl. There are many species of woodpeckers in the forests. The bald-headed vulture eagle lives on the island of Cres.

There are many commercial fish species in the Adriatic Sea. Of the aquatic mammals, the monk seal is characteristic.

Banks and money

Croatian banknotes / Currency converter

The monetary unit of Croatia is the kuna (HRK, Kh), equal to 100 lipa. In circulation there are banknotes of 1000, 500, 100, 50, 20, 10, 5 kunas, as well as coins of 1, 2, 5 kunas and 10, 20, 50 lipas.

Currency exchange can be done in banks, post offices, exchange offices, travel agencies, as well as in any hotel. In many banks, the exchange is made without commission, but usually the commission is 1-1.5%. Reverse exchange can be carried out only at the bank in the presence of receipts. Most banks in the country accept travelers checks. Plastic cards are accepted everywhere.

Banks are open on weekdays from 8.00 to 19.00 and on Saturday from 8.00 to 12.00.

When buying goods in one place for more than 500 kunas, VAT can be charged upon departure from the country at the customs office. To do this, you must present a check, the goods themselves and a passport.

Currently, in Croatia, the bulk of the population professes Catholicism - 76.5%. Also widespread are such religions as: Orthodoxy - 11.1%; Muslim - 1.2%; Protestantism, 1.4%; atheists in the country - 3.9%; 6.9% are accounted for by other religions.

Geographic location of Croatia. Croatia - general characteristics of the country The position of Croatia in historical and geographical regions

GENERAL AND POLITICO-ECONOMIC

HISTORY OF CROATIA