Scientists have worked hard and spent a lot of time to finally prove it. They dropped payloads from towers or into deep wells and fired cannonballs vertically into the air to try to detect the slightest deviation in their trajectory. But all attempts to fix the rotation of the Earth were unsuccessful.
Until, in 1851, Jean Foucault was finally able to visually prove the Earth's rotation. A physician by education, Foucault was also a talented inventor. He developed a simple experimental setup that anyone could easily reproduce.
But for some unknown reason, in Russia, Foucault's pendulum still became a hostage to the relationship between church and state. It was removed in 1986, when the temple was returned to believers. Now the bronze ball lies in storage, in the cellars of the Cathedral. Placed in eternal storage, included in the blockade exposition as part of the city's history. The reason why the pendulum was removed is half engineering, half theological. In the center of the dome, where the cable used to be fastened, the figure of a dove, symbolizing the Holy Spirit, has been returned. Tying a pendulum to it is both unethical and unreliable, and there is no other suitable place in the building. And in general, astronomical instruments should be placed in buildings specially adapted for this purpose, the museum believes. Although the pendulum is remembered with nostalgia.
On the night of April 11-12, 1931, in the presence of 7,000 spectators, Foucault's pendulum was swung for the first time in St. Isaac's Cathedral, clearly illustrating the rotation of the Earth. According to NTV-SPb, the audience was delighted: many argued whether a matchbox placed on a special stand would be knocked down or not. Celestial mechanics did not fail: the swing plane of the pendulum visually turned, and the box fell. Then it was called the triumph of science over religion. However, in vain.
“In fact, it was the other way around,” says Sergey Okunev, curator of the exposition of St. Isaac’s Cathedral. Foucault's first experiment was carried out with the blessing of the Pope in order to prove the power of God.
The pendulum retains the plane of its oscillations, and the Earth rotates, so the arrow moves. Classic experience. How the proof of the rotation of the Earth refutes the dogma of the existence of God, so far no one has explained. But for some unknown reason, in Russia, Foucault's pendulum still became a hostage to the relationship between church and state. It was removed in 1986, when the temple was returned to believers. Now the bronze ball lies in storage, in the cellars of the Cathedral. Placed in eternal storage, included in the blockade exposition as part of the city's history.
The reason the pendulum was removed is half engineering, half theological. In the center of the dome, where the cable used to be fastened, the figure of a dove, symbolizing the Holy Spirit, has been returned. Tying a pendulum to it is both unethical and unreliable, and there is no other suitable place in the building. And in general, astronomical instruments should be placed in buildings specially adapted for this purpose, the museum believes. Although the pendulum is remembered with nostalgia.
The technical characteristics of the Foucault pendulum in St. Isaac's Cathedral were as follows: the weight of the ball is 54 kg; suspension wire length - 98 m (there are figures 93 and 97 m); the oscillation period is a little less than 20 seconds; the distance between adjacent intersections of the pendulum on the outer circumference of the center of the cathedral during 20 s is about 6 mm (in this case, the Earth rotates 13 degrees in one hour). Who was the most
the largest Foucault pendulum ever used to demonstrate the rotation of the earth. — See more at: http://www.kontext-paper.ru/7272#sthash.WBUTZdLf.dpuf
In 1931, an experiment with Foucault's pendulum was demonstrated in St. Isaac's Cathedral
The Soviet government fought against opium for the people: the scientific experiment was scheduled for Easter night. Seven thousand Leningraders crammed into St. Isaac's Cathedral, then given over to an anti-religious museum. Krasnaya Gazeta wrote the following day: "Numerous the visitors listened with great interest to Professor Kamenshchikov's lecture on Foucault's experiment. The lecture from Isaac was broadcast on the radio to a number of cities in the Soviet Union. Then Foucault's pendulum hung in Isaac for a long time and "drawn its diagonals in the void from edge to edge of an astigmatic closed line," as Umberto Eco wrote in the novel of the same name.
It turns out that not only Galileo loved to watch the swinging of the lamps in the cathedral. He passed on this passion to his student Vincenzo Viviani. In 1660, unlike Galileo, he drew attention to another feature of the oscillations of a pendulum on a long thread.
It turns out that the plane of their swings constantly deviates, and always in the same direction - clockwise, if you look at the pendulum from top to bottom. And in 1664, a scientist from the city of Padua, Giovanni Poleni, connected this deviation with the rotation of the Earth - they say, the Earth rotates, and the plane of oscillation of the pendulum, as it was, remains. So this is observed by people standing on the Earth as a deviation of the plane of the swing of the pendulum.
But it turns out that this property of the pendulum was also known to the ubiquitous ancients. Indeed, the new is the well-forgotten old. Here is what the Roman scholar Pliny the Elder, who lived in the 1st century BC, wrote about this in his Natural History. n. e.: “It is possible to arrange a compass without a magnet. To do this, you need to take a pendulum and make it swing in a certain direction. When the ship turns, the pendulum will keep in its swings the direction given to it” (Fig. 94).
I must say, something in the advice of Pliny is questionable. Firstly, Pliny could not have known about the compass, in Europe they learned about it much later, at least they gave it this name. So much attributed to Pliny could well have been contributed by the translator of his works from Latin in the 18th century. Secondly, it is impossible that the pendulum does not change the plane of its oscillations for so long, its suspension cannot be made ideal, and the air around it will interfere. And the third - the rotation of the Earth will itself "deflect" the plane of oscillation of the pendulum, so that the ship "sets" in a circle. But one way or another, Pliny noticed that the pendulum retains the plane of its swings. And this property was brilliantly applied by the French scientist Jean Bernard Leon Foucault (1819-1868), who created his famous pendulums. Since childhood, Foucault did not like to study, knowledge was given to him with difficulty. But his hands were golden - he made toys, appliances, built a steam engine himself, worked perfectly on a lathe.
Foucault made his first experiments with the pendulum in the cellar of his house in Paris. He attached a two-meter wire of hardened steel to the top of the vault of the cellar and hung on it a five-kilogram brass ball. Taking the ball aside, fixing it with a thread near one of the walls, Foucault burned the thread, allowing the pendulum to swing freely. And in half an hour he witnessed the rotation of the Earth. This happened on January 8, 1851.
A few days later, Foucault repeated his experience at the Paris Observatory at the request of its director, the famous French scientist Arago. This time, the length of the wire was already 11 m. And the deviation of the swing plane of the pendulum was even more noticeable.
Foucault's experience was talked about everywhere. Everyone wanted to see the rotation of the Earth with their own eyes. It got to the point that the President of France, Prince Louis-Napoleon, decided to put this experience on a truly gigantic scale in order to demonstrate it publicly. Foucault was given the building of the Paris Pantheon with a dome height of 83 m.
Already in April of the same 1851, Foucault's experiment was opened for viewing in the Pantheon (Fig. 96). The length of the pendulum suspension - steel wire with a diameter of 1.4 mm - was 65 m, the weight of the pendulum was 28 kg. The metal ball made one complete oscillation in 16 seconds, passing 14 m of the path, and deviated at the same time by 2.5 mm from its original position. A special electromagnet maintained the constancy of oscillations.
Entire crowds of Parisians came to look at Foucault's pendulum. Demonstrations of Foucault's experience began to be arranged in the most different countries. Reports of this came from Liverpool and Oxford, Bristol and Dublin, Geneva and Rennes. Even in Rio de Janeiro and Colombo, Ceylon, thousands of enthusiastic spectators applauded this wonderful experience. There were also indoor models of Foucault pendulums.
But the most grandiose at one time was the experiment with Foucault's pendulum in the building of St. Isaac's Cathedral in Leningrad (today's St. Petersburg) (Fig. 97). Its first demonstration took place on March 6, 1931. A bronze ball weighing 60 kg was suspended on a steel wire with a diameter of 1 mm and a length of 98 m. Sufficiently northern position of the city provided a significant deviation of the pendulum - approximately 13° per hour. This is more than twice as much as Foucault himself in the Pantheon. For one oscillation, the swing plane shifted by 6 mm, which was clearly visible.
You can arrange a small Foucault pendulum yourself. You need to prepare a pendulum, for example, by tying a heavy nut to a thread, take the free end of the thread in your hand and ... No, you do not have to stand for hours, waiting for the Earth to turn. It’s better to stand on the famous Zhukovsky bench or even on the purchased Grace and, stretching out your hand with a swinging pendulum, try to spin yourself. The pendulum in your hand will maintain the originally set direction of oscillation, for example from the door to the closet (Fig. 98).
And more about Foucault, or rather, about the example of his life. He did not study well at school (attention, lazy people!), He was not drawn to knowledge. In addition, he was in very poor health. But carried away by an interesting business, he became a world-famous scientist, his name was included in all encyclopedias. And not only because of his pendulum. Foucault measured the speed of light both in air and in water, discovered his eddy "Foucault currents" and made many other discoveries in physics.
That's what passion is!
The Foucault pendulum is a massive weight suspended on a wire or thread, the upper end of which is reinforced (for example, using a cardan joint) so that it allows the pendulum to swing in any vertical plane. If the Foucault pendulum is deflected from the vertical and released without initial velocity, then the forces of gravity and tension of the thread acting on the pendulum’s weight will lie all the time in the plane of the pendulum’s swing and will not be able to cause its rotation with respect to the stars (to the inertial frame of reference associated with the stars) .
An observer who is on the Earth and rotates with it will see that the swing plane of the pendulum slowly rotates relative to the earth's surface in the direction opposite to the direction of the Earth's rotation (Fig. 1).
Scheme of the movement of the Foucault pendulum
Thus, the fact of the daily rotation of the Earth is confirmed. in the North or south pole the plane of swing of the Foucault pendulum will rotate 360° in a sidereal day. At a point on the earth's surface, geographical latitude which is equal to j, the horizon plane rotates around the vertical with an angular velocity:
where w is the angular velocity of the Earth's rotation.
Here the swing plane of the pendulum rotates with the same angular velocity. Therefore, the apparent angular velocity of rotation of the oscillation plane of the Foucault pendulum at latitude j, expressed in degrees per sidereal hour, has the value wm = 15 ° sin j, i.e., it will be the smaller, the smaller j and vanishes at the equator (the oscillation plane does not rotates). In the Southern Hemisphere, the rotation of the rocking plane will be observed in the direction opposite to that observed in the Northern Hemisphere. The refined calculation gives the value:
wm \u003d 15 ° (1 -3 (A / L) 2 / 8) sin j,
where A is the amplitude of the oscillation of the pendulum load;
l is the length of the thread.
The additional term, which reduces the angular velocity, is the smaller, the larger l. Therefore, for demonstrations of experience, Foucault pendulums with the largest possible length of the thread (several tens of meters) are used.
FOUCAULT PENDULUM
a device that visually demonstrates the rotation of the Earth. His invention is attributed to J. Foucault (1819 −1868). At first, the experiment was performed in a narrow circle, but L. Bonaparte (later Napoleon III, the French emperor) became so interested that he suggested that Foucault repeat it publicly on a grandiose scale under the dome of the Pantheon in Paris. This public demonstration, arranged in 1851, is called the Foucault experiment.
THE FAMOUS EXPERIMENT OF FOUCAULT, carried out at the Pantheon in Paris in 1851, which demonstrated that the Earth rotates on its axis. The pendulum was a load B weighing 28 kg, suspended under the dome of the building on a wire A 67 m long. When the pendulum was released, it began to swing along line C. With each subsequent swing, the pendulum dropped the sand poured from above on the fence, approximately 3 mm from the previous place . After about two and a half hours, the pendulum passed along line D.
Under the dome of the building, Foucault suspended a metal ball weighing 28 kg on a steel wire 67 m long. directions. Under the pendulum, a circular fence with a radius of 6 m was made with a center directly below the suspension point. Sand was poured over the fence so that with each swing, a metal point attached under the ball of the pendulum could sweep it away in its path. To ensure the launch of the pendulum without a lateral push, it was taken aside and tied with a rope. After the pendulum, after tying, came to a state of complete rest, the rope was burned out and the pendulum began to move. A pendulum of this length makes one complete oscillation in 16.4 seconds, and it soon became clear that the swing plane of the pendulum rotates clockwise relative to the floor. With each subsequent swing, the metal tip swept the sand about 3 mm from the previous place. In an hour, the rocking plane turned more than 11°, and in about 32 hours it made a complete revolution and returned to its previous position. This impressive demonstration drove the audience downright into hysterics; it seemed to them that they felt the rotation of the Earth under their feet. To find out why the pendulum behaves this way, consider a sand ring. north point the ring is 3 m from the center, and given that the Pantheon is located at 48 ° 51 "north latitude, this part of the ring is 2.3 m closer to the earth's axis than the center. Therefore, when the Earth rotates 360 ° within 24 hours the northern edge of the ring will move in a circle of a smaller radius than the center, and will pass 14.42 m less per day.Consequently, the difference in the speeds of these points is 1 cm/min.In the same way, the southern edge of the ring moves at 14.42 m per day , or 1 cm/min faster than the center of the ring Due to this speed difference, the line connecting the northern and southern point ring, always remains directed from north to south.
FOUCAULT'S PENDULUM (upper right), shown greatly enlarged relative to the size of the Earth at approximately the latitude (f) of Paris. The radius of the circle of sand under the pendulum is r; the distance from the Earth's axis to the center of the circle is R. Using the formula given in the text, you can calculate how much faster the northern edge of the sand circle moves during the rotation of the Earth.
At the earth's equator, the northern and southern ends of such a small space would be at the same distance from the earth's axis and, therefore, moving at the same speed. Therefore, the surface of the Earth would not revolve around a vertical column standing at the equator, and Foucault's pendulum would swing along the same line. The rotation speed of the swing plane would be zero, and the time for a complete revolution would be infinitely long. If the pendulum were set exactly at one of the geographic poles, then it would turn out that the swing plane rotates exactly 15 ° every hour and makes a complete rotation of 360 ° in 24 hours. (The surface of the Earth rotates 360 ° per day around the earth's axis. )
The twin brother of the Foucault pendulum, invented in France and intended to prove the rotation of the Earth around the Sun, was created in St. Petersburg more than 80 years ago. And an element was placed, designed, according to the idea of the Soviet authorities, to prove the absence of the divine in the world, not just anywhere, but in St. Isaac's Cathedral.
The curator of the state museum-monument "St. Isaac's Cathedral" Sergei Nikolayevich Okunev told me today that the pendulum is still in the cathedral and many visitors who know about it are extremely unhappy with this fact. Like, desecrating the cathedral for 60 years, the element is not worthy of memory.
The very idea of the experiment was picked up by the museum staff from the French physicist Jean Foucault, who demonstrated it under the dome of the Pantheon. “The experiment was carried out with the blessing of the Pope in order to prove the power of God. In the USSR, a similar action had completely different tasks - to prove the absence of the divine, ”said Sergey Nikolayevich.
A pendulum appeared, suspended directly under the dome of the cathedral, in 1931. Then, having ceased to be a cathedral, St. Isaac's became the State Anti-Religious Museum, where on the night of April 11-12 an experiment was demonstrated proving the rotation of the Earth around its axis. Such is the refutation of the divine.
The pendulum disappeared from St. Isaac's Cathedral at the moment when faith returned to people. On June 17, 1990, a solemn divine service was held in St. Isaac's Cathedral, for the first time after closing. Foucault's pendulum, however, suffered a sad fate: it was dismantled, and the previously overthrown dove was returned to the vacant place as a symbol of the Holy Spirit.
Today, only a reminder of the pendulum can be found in the cathedral itself: on the floor in the center, strictly under the dome, there is a multi-colored ornament in the form of a circle. For almost 60 years, this place was fenced and only guides were allowed to enter there. Inside it, right through the center, a ball with a tip swayed, suspended on a wire somewhere high under the dome. At the beginning of the story, the guide placed a bar on the outer circle a few centimeters from the place where the ball crossed the circle. During the story, the distance between the bar and the tip of the ball steadily decreased. Finally, to the sound of satisfied exclamations, the bar fell down, knocked down during the next flight of the ball.
Now you can look at the pendulum only in the cellars of St. Isaac's Cathedral, where it is either peacefully waiting for its new release, or simply resting from continuous many years of work.
In 1963 St. Isaac's Cathedral was opened after restoration. Before that, the cult funds were transferred to the anti-religious museum (to the Kazan Cathedral). Since then, the museum operating here has a purely historical focus.
St. Isaac's Cathedral houses a bust of Auguste Montferrand, made of 43 types of minerals and stones - all that was used in the construction of the temple.
By 1981, the Foucault pendulum was obsolete, since no one was required to prove the rotation of the Earth around its axis. It was not transferred to another organization due to large sizes. There was no other building of the required height for the pendulum. He was placed between the doors. The thickness of the walls of St. Isaac's Cathedral, together with the cladding, is five meters, so the gap between the doors allows you to store some objects between them.
After the removal of the pendulum, the St. Isaac's Cathedral museum became not just historical, but historical and artistic. He remains so to this day. But services are again held in the temple. The colonnade of St. Isaac's Cathedral is one of the most attractive places for tourists. Here, from a height of 43 meters, you can see the panorama of St. Petersburg. For this observation deck 562 steps of a spiral staircase lead.
), staysail, one or more jibs and upper triangular ( topsel). At the beginning of the 20th century, the tender was described as a ship with two or three headsails. A secondary feature, depending on the number of front sails, was the location of the mast: in the region of 1/3 - 1/2 of the length along the constructive waterline(KVL) from the nose. The location of the mast and the number of headsails determined the type of bowsprit. Tenders often had a retractable bowsprit, sloops- only permanent.
Further, these insignificant differences between the tender and the sloop began to disappear. First, the retractable bowsprit went out of fashion, and by the 30s of the 20th century, bowsprits on single-mast yachts were generally used less and less. Spread glued spars led to an increase in the height of the masts, and the need to compensate for the insufficient height of the mast with a large number of developed headsails on the bowsprit disappeared. Tenders with three headsails have since become almost a museum rarity.
The tender is, first of all, one of the types of gaff weapons. Bermuda tenders have been around for a very short time, and they appeared due to the preservation of traditional headsails in the transition from gaff rig to Bermudian. The tacking qualities of the tender are somewhat lower than those of a sloop. When, when improving the spars and standing rigging it was found possible to securely hold the mast in the longitudinal direction with just one stay from the nose, the Bermuda tenders have all but disappeared.
In the era of the sailing fleet, a tender was called a single-masted vessel auxiliary purpose, with a displacement of 50-60 tons, armed with 10-12 small-caliber guns.
Modern tenders often have Bermuda sailing rigging: instead of a trisail and topsail, one large triangular sail is used - the Bermuda mainsail.
see also
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Literature
- Epov G.S. Sailing armament of ships. - St. Petersburg: "Elmor", 2005.
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The rigging of a gaff tender consists of a quadrangular mainsail (trisail mainsail), staysail, one or more jibs and an upper triangular (topsail). At the beginning of the 20th century, the tender was described as a ship with two or three headsails. A secondary feature, depending on the number of front sails, was the location of the mast: in the region of 1/3 - 1/2 of the length along the design waterline (DWL) from the bow. The position of the mast and the number of headsails determined the type of bowsprit used. Tenders often had a retractable bowsprit, sloops only had a permanent one.
Further, these insignificant differences between the tender and the sloop began to disappear. First, the retractable bowsprit went out of fashion, and by the 30s of the 20th century, bowsprits on single-mast yachts were generally used less and less. The spread of glued spars led to an increase in the height of the masts, and the need to compensate for the insufficient height of the mast with a large number of developed headsails on the bowsprit disappeared. Tenders with three headsails have since become almost a museum rarity.
The tender is, first of all, one of the types of gaff weapons. Bermuda tenders were very short-lived, and they appeared due to the preservation of traditional headsails during the transition from hafel rigging to Bermuda rigging. The tacking qualities of the tender are somewhat lower than those of a sloop. When, while improving the spars and standing rigging, it was found possible to securely hold the mast in the longitudinal direction with just one stay from the bow, the Bermuda tenders practically disappeared.
In the era of the sailing fleet, a tender was called a single-masted auxiliary vessel, with a displacement of 50–60 tons, armed with 10–12 small-caliber guns.
Modern tenders often have bermuda rigging: instead of a mainsail-trisail and a topsail, one large triangular sail is used - a Bermuda mainsail.
A single-masted sailing vessel about 70 feet in length. and 200 tons. displacement. The mast does not have a slope, and a long horizontal bowsprit protrudes from the bow, which can be pushed inside the vessel in a fresh wind. Sailing: slanting mainsail, brief, topsail and several jibs. Now T. in military fleets are not used.
- - 1) trailer part of the locomotive, intended. to store a supply of water, fuel, and sometimes to accommodate auxiliary facilities. devices. Represents a 3-, 4- or 6-axle railway. wagon...
Big encyclopedic polytechnic dictionary
- - part of a steam locomotive in the form of a separate wagon, attached to a steam locomotive and serving to place water and fuel supplies on it, as well as auxiliary devices necessary for the operation of a steam locomotive ...
Technical railway dictionary
- - 1) competitive bidding open type or closed, for limited number participants, competitive order placement form...
Economic dictionary
- - 1. written proposal, application, offer; 2. application for subscription to securities, trades; 3. notification of the intention to deliver goods under a fixed-term contract; 4...
Big accounting dictionary
- - Written proposal, application, offer. Application for subscription to securities, trades. Notice of intent to deliver goods under a fixed-term contract...
Terminological dictionary of a librarian on socio-economic topics
- - 1) bidding. At an auction, contracts are usually concluded by those persons from whom the offer of the highest price was received. At the competition, the contract is concluded with the winner who offered the most favorable conditions ...
Law Encyclopedia
- - 1. A small sports single-masted sailing vessel with or without a topmast, with one mainsail, and sometimes with a haf topsail and fore staysail, which are attached to the post by means of stays ...
Marine vocabulary
- - - offer received during the auction. - notice for the delivery of goods on the futures exchange...
Financial vocabulary
- - 1) application, offer, notification of goods, equipment, services, trade for the right to request the possibility and conditions of ship repair, sent to ship repair companies ...
Encyclopedic Dictionary of Economics and Law
- - a single-masted sailing vessel about 70 feet long. and 200 tons. displacement. The mast does not have a slope, and a long horizontal bowsprit protrudes from the bow, which can be pushed inside the vessel with a fresh wind ...
Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron
- - 1) a three-, four-, six-axle wagon usually attached to the Steam Locomotive with supplies of water and fuel. Sometimes assistive devices are placed on T. 2) A small single-masted sailing ship...
Great Soviet Encyclopedia
- - Loans. in the 19th century from English. lang., where tender - from attender "accompanying" - from attend "accompany" ...
Etymological dictionary of the Russian language
- - ; pl. te/dery, R....
Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language
- - husband. single-masted seaworthy vessel. Tender rigging, two straight sails, hafel with topsail behind, and slanting ahead. | Locomotive tender, wagon with water and coal, behind the locomotive...
Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary
- - TENDER, -a, husband. A special wagon coupled to a steam locomotive for fuel, water, tools, or the rear part of the locomotive adapted for this ...
Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov
- - TENDER, tender, husband. . 1. A special arrangement of a wagon with a supply of fuel, water, and other materials, attached directly to a steam locomotive. 2...
Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov
"Tender Vessel" in books
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2. Gender in Communication Studies
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From the book Marketing. And now the questions! author Mann Igor Borisovich187. Are there any briefs for the development of marketing trainings? Or is it better to announce a tender? How to make sure that invited marketing trainers teach the company's employees exactly what they need? There are briefs, I received such. It even happened to meet with customers to
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Chapter 4
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From the book Encyclopedia of a Lawyer author author unknownTENDER TENDER (eng. tender - offer to execute a contract, submit an application at an auction, submit an application for a subscription to securities) - 1) an auction (auction, or competition). Contracts are usually concluded at an auction (or the right to conclude a contract within
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From the book Great Encyclopedia of Technology author Team of authorsTender Tender - military intelligence sailing ship, which was part of the border units in the XIX century. In Russia, the tender was part of the navy from 1817 to 1861. It has the form of a single-masted vessel 28 m long and up to 5 m wide with a displacement of up to 200 tons,
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From the book The Newest Philosophical Dictionary author Gritsanov Alexander AlekseevichGENDER (English gender - gender, most often grammatical) is a concept used in the social sciences to display the socio-cultural aspect of a person's gender. Unlike the Russian language, which has one word related to this issue: gender, - English
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