Ministry of Education of the Republic of Bashkortostan
MKU Education Department AMR Bizhbulyak District
MOBU secondary school № 2 with. Bizhbulyak
Historical research work on the topic
« What is the future of aerospace transport? »
SpaceX - Road to the Future
About the history and development prospects of the companySpacex
Completed: Agleev Linar, grade 10
MOBU SOSH № 2 with. Bizhbulyak
MR Bizhbulyaksky district
Republic of Bashkortostan
School address:
452040 Republic of Bashkortostan,
MR Bizhbulyaksky district,
With. Bizhbulyak, st. Centralnaya, 72
Phone: 8 347 43 2 17 21
Fax: 8 347 43 2 17 21
Head: I.R. Gibatov
With. Bizhbulyak, 2015
Introduction
Chapter 1. ProjectSpacex
- 1.1 Project history
- 1.2. SpaceX launch vehicles prospects
- 1.3. Engines developed by SpaceX
- 1.4. Reusable - Reusable
- 1.5. Dragon
Conclusion
References
Applications
Introduction
We are now living on the brink of a colossal event -
such as the transfer of life to other planets.
Elon Musk
Having familiarized myself with the regulations on the Mozhaisky Olympiad, I was interested in the question: "What is the future of aerospace transport?" I decided to look for an answer to it. As a result of the search, I learned about the project of a private company SpaceX, which dreams of creating the Martian Colonial Transport and reducing the cost of space flights.
I put forward hypothesis: in the future, it will be possible to use SpaceX projects for aerospace transport.
Objective: to find out if the Space X project can be used for the development of aerospace transport
Tasks:
- Examine the history of the project
- Study the evolution of SpaceX launch vehicles, their engines and their benefits
- Explore the prospects of the SpaceX project
Research methods:
- Study and analysis of literature and related sites on the Internet
- Analysis of company reports
Object of study: private space company SpaceX
Chapter 1. ProjectSpacex
1.1. History of the project
I learned that the history of SpaceX goes back to 2001. Its leader Elon Max has been fond of space all his life. He dreamed of creating his own rocket project. He called this project SpaceX - Space Exploration Systems.
The first rocket the company developed was called the Falcon 1, as it used a single Merlin engine. This rocket had outstanding characteristics, a light class rocket (see Appendix 1). The payload was only up to 600 kilograms. During the tests, the engines turned off and then exploded.
By 2004, the engines began to run stably.
In 2006, the first launch of the Falcon 1 launch vehicle took place. The rocket took off, quickly rushed into the sky and exploded in 25 seconds. Fell near the launch pad. The reason was the destruction of the nut to which the fuel line was attached to the engine.
During the second run, the first stage worked perfectly. After separating the stages, the second stage engine was turned on. But during the development of fuel, the fuel inside the tanks began to splash, the stage began to sway and collapse.
The third launch took place in August 2008. During the third launch, during the separation of the stages, the first stage did not move away from the second. All this happened due to the fact that an engine with a different type of cooling was installed on the third rocket.
The fourth launch was made a month after the third launch. As a payload, unlike the first launches, they did not use a satellite - this launch used a mass and size model of the cargo. In September 2008, the first and second stages worked perfectly and put this mass and size cargo into an orbit with a perigee of 500 kilometers and an apogee of 700 kilometers around the Earth.
The next evolutionary step at SpaceX was the Falcon 9 rocket, which used 9 Merlin engines in its technology. And the first rocket in the Falcon 9 family was version 1.1 rocket. (see Appendix 2). The Falcon 9 (v 1.0) had nine engines in a row. The rocket was controlled by the distribution of thrust between the engines along the perimeter. The motors did not rotate, and the motor rotation control was not used. The system distributed the thrust, thereby controlling the movement. Five such missiles were built. After that, they began to use a new version of the Falcon 9 rocket (v 1.1). In version 1.1, the tanks were increased, the most noticeable difference was the transition from the inline arrangement of the engines to the annular arrangement (see Appendix 3.5). The annular arrangement made it possible to place the central engine on the suspension, due to which the control began to be carried out by turning the central engine. This was necessary in order to further return the step to Earth. There are currently 5 such missiles out of 19 launches - version 1.0, and the remaining 14 - version 1.1.
The next stage is version 1.2 (Falcon 9 v 1.2). The fundamental difference between the rocket is the use of a supercooled oxygen oxidizer. Cryogenic oxygen is passed through a special device, through liquid nitrogen, due to which it is cooled to about -215 degrees Celsius. This increases the density of the oxidizer by 7%, and accordingly allows you to put more oxidant by weight in the rocket. The fuel is now also cooled to a temperature of -30 degrees Celsius - this increases the efficiency of the rocket cooling system. Falcon 9 version 1.2 is planned in three versions (see Appendix 6). The first version is the version with the Dragon 1 spacecraft, the second version is the version with the Dragon 2 spacecraft under construction, and the third version is the version with payload fairings to put satellites into orbit. A new version allowed to increase the mass of the payload by about 30%. This is necessary in order to launch heavy loads into orbit, and in each launch to install a stage return system, which takes a certain mass and a certain fuel.
1.2. Prospects for launch vehiclesSpace X
Continuing to get acquainted with the SpaceX project, I found out that the next, not only qualitative, but also quantitative development of SpaceX's rockets is the Falcon Heavy launch vehicle (see Appendix 7). A super-heavy rocket, the central block is a Falcon 9 plus two additional booster blocks, which are the first stages of the rocket. All three parts will be returned to Earth. The first two stages are planned to be returned to the shore, to the landing sites, the third stage will fly a little further along its ballistic trajectory, and therefore it is planned to land it on a floating cosmodrome - on a barge. Also, this rocket will use a unique cross-feed fuel system. What it consists in - during the start, all three blocks are working - these are 27 engines (3x9), but the fuel and oxidizer are taken from the two extreme blocks, the central one remains intact until the extreme blocks are undocked. During their undocking, fuel begins to be consumed from the central part and this improves the characteristics of the rocket. The most significant change to the rocket is the mass it can put into orbit. In low-support orbit, this amounts to 53 tons - an incredible mass. To Mars - 13.2 tons. Falcon Heavy will be capable of delivering a fully loaded Dragon ship to Mars, and partially loaded onto Jupiter.
1.3. Engines developed by the companySpacex
I learned that SpaceX has developed simple Merlin engines that use an open cycle (see Appendix 9.12) This means that some of the fuel and oxidizer is used to force the fuel into the combustion chamber. A gas generator is used, in which part of the fuel and oxidizer is burned, spinning turbines that supply fuel under high pressure to the combustion chamber, and the exhaust gases exit through the branch pipe. In the first version of Falcon 1, the change in the vector of this exhaust was used to control the rocket.
The open loop circuit is simple, reliable, and inexpensive to build and use. Because it uses a low pressure in the combustion chamber - and this, with a great backlog for the future, encourages the use of reusable systems.
I found out that Merlin engines do not have such a high thrust as our legendary RD-108 engine, and not the highest specific impulse, which shows the engine efficiency (see Appendix 10)
However, they have an advantage - thrust-to-weight ratio (see Appendix 11). The thrust-to-weight ratio is how much of its own mass the engine can lift. 157 units - this is a record for an engine of such a scheme. The above is only true for rockets that use toxic fuels. The engines are planned to be returned and reused.
1.4. Reusable - reusability
While researching the company's launch vehicles and engines, I learned about SpaceX's reusable first stage launch vehicle project (see Appendix 13). In fact, this reusable theory has both many supporters and many opponents. But it is this function that significantly reduces the cost of SpaceX launches. I found out that this way the startup cost is reduced by ~ 60%. And the company can invest these funds in its future developments and prospects.
Work on reusability began in 2011 at SpaceX's MacGregor test site in Texas. Using a test bench called Grasshopper ( Grasshopper). This rocket, which, in fact, was the first stage of the Falcon 9 LV. Why Grasshopper? Grasshopper, because this rocket "bounced", it made jumps and worked out the moment of landing of the stage by changing the engine thrust and its vector.
In 2014, the return system began to be installed on active launch vehicles that were launched as part of SpaceX missions. In April 2014, the first attempt was made to land the stage - not on the surface, but simply into the ocean. The rocket approached the water surface at the required speed, slowed down and plunged into the water.
In 2015, tests began with the landing of a stage on a floating barge-cosmodrome, which was in the ocean. It used four diesel engines, which held the barge at a certain point, with an accuracy of several meters, and the stage landed on this barge. The case when the landing attempt was made was in April 2015, then "it almost worked out": the rocket came up well, it hit where it was needed, but as a result of a slight drift, it overturned and exploded.
On December 22, Falcon 9 v.1.2 FT was launched, the first launch since the June 2015 crash. This time, SpaceX for the first time managed to carry out a controlled descent to the ground of the lower stage of the Falcon 9 launch vehicle (see Appendix 13). Thus, the company was able to save it for reuse. I learned that the rocket is currently undergoing the necessary tests to determine its condition after launch and landing. This rocket will not fly again, - Elon Musk said that they will keep it for their own museum.
Our compatriots tried to create similar projects. In GKNPTs them. Khrunichev, together with NPO Molniya, developed Baikal (see Appendix 15) - a project for a reusable first stage booster for the Angara launch vehicle. The main idea of the project was that the rocket booster that completed the task, having separated from the carrier, automatically returned to the launch site and landed on the airplane runway as a winged unmanned aerial vehicle. But, unfortunately, our project remained at the development stage. The developers showed the model of the accelerator in 2001, at the MAKS-2001 aerospace show.
1.5. Dragon
In 2004, the company began developing the Dragon ship, which made its first flight in December 2010. The useful volume is 11 cubic meters, it is also capable of transporting cargo in the "trunk", the volume of which is 14 m 3 ( see Appendix 16).
I found that Dragon's uniqueness lies in its ability to return cargo from the ISS to Earth and is the first ship produced by a private company to dock with the ISS.
Dragon V2 is the second version of the ship. It uses Super Draco motors, fully 3D printed. Two engines are combined into 1 cluster. A total of 4 clusters are used. Using these engines, the ship will be able to land on its own without using parachutes ( see Appendix 17).
I learned that in the perspective of the Dragon spacecraft - the mission "Mars 2020", in which a rover, created on an analogue of the existing Curiosity, will collect samples of the Martian soil in the container, and then deliver it to the take-off and landing point of the Dragon spacecraft, which will deliver them to orbit, and then to Earth.
Conclusion
After examining the information about the Space X project, I found out that the prospect of the project is the use of new Raptor engines, about which nothing is known yet. This rocket will be fully reusable, the first and second stages will be reused. And it will be delivered into orbit by the Martian Colonial Transport (see Appendix 18), which will be used to deliver people to Mars - about a hundred people will fit on one spacecraft. Based on all the materials presented, I came to the conclusion that in the future it will be possible to use the SpaceX project for aerospace transport.
List of used literature and sources
1. Ashley Vance - Elon Musk. Tesla, SpaceX and the road to the future. (Publisher: Olymp-Business; 2015; ISBN 978-5-9693-0307-2, 978-0-06-230123-9, 978-59693-0330-0);
2. V.A. Afanasyev - Experimental development of spacecraft (Publisher: Moscow: MAI Publishing House; 1994; ISBN: 5-7035-0318-3);
3. V. Maksimovsky - “Angara-Baikal. O reusable booster module»;
4. Official SpaceX website - link;
5. SpaceX's official YouTube channel - link ;
6. Material from Wikipedia - link.
Appendix
Appendix 1. Falcon 1.
Appendix 2. Evolutionary path of the Falcon LV.
Appendix 3. Layout of Falcon9 engines v1.0 (left) and v1.1 (right).
Appendix 4. Falcon 9 versions 1.0 and 1.1.
Appendix 5. Location of engines in version 1.1.
Appendix 6. Falcon 9. of three types: with the Dragon 1 spacecraft, the Dragon 2 spacecraft and with the PN fairing.
Appendix 7. Falcon Heavy.
Appendix 8. Evolution of SpaceX launch vehicles.
Appendix 9. Merlin engine.
Appendix 10. Comparison of thrust of engines Merlin 1, Vulcain, RS-25 and RD-108.
Appendix 11. Merlin 1D thrust-to-weight ratio.
Appendix 12. Merlin 1D Vacuum.
Appendix 13.
Appendix 13.1.
Appendix 14. Scheme of the flight and landing of the rocket.
Appendix 15 ... MRU "Angara-Baikal"
Appendix 16. Spaceship Dragon V1.
Appendix 17. Spaceship Dragon V2.
Appendix 18. Art concept of Big Falcon Rocket.
Kuzminova Anastasia Olegovna
Age: 14 years
Place of study: Vologda, MOU "Secondary School No. 1 with in-depth study of the English language"
Town: Vologda
Leaders: Chuglova Anna Bronislavovna, a physics teacher in the senior grades of the secondary school No. 1 with in-depth study of the English language;
Oleg Kuzminov.
Historical research work on the topic:
WHAT IS THE FUTURE OF AEROSPACE TRANSPORT?
Plan:
- 1. Introduction
- 2. Main part
- 2.1 The history of the development of aerospace ships;
- 2.2 Promising transport ships of the future;
- 2.3 The main directions of use and development of advanced transport systems (PTS);
- 3. Conclusion
- 4. Sources of information.
1. Introduction
For the first time, the program of space exploration was formulated by K.E. Tsiolkovsky, in which the key role belongs to the transport space systems. Currently, aerospace transport is used for: scientific research of planets and outer space, solving military problems, launching artificial earth satellites, building and maintaining orbital stations and industries, transporting goods in space, as well as in the development of space tourism.
Spaceship is an aircraft designed for the flight of people and the transportation of goods in outer space. Spacecraft for flight in near-earth orbits are called satellite ships, and for flight to other celestial bodies - interplanetary ships. At the initial stage, transport spaceships demonstrated the capabilities of space technology and the solution of individual applied problems. Currently, they are faced with global practical tasks aimed at the efficient and cost-effective use of space.
To achieve these goals, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:
Creation of universal, reusable spaceships;
Use of power plants with more efficient and inexpensive fuels;
Increasing the carrying capacity of the vehicle;
Environmental and biological safety of ships.
Relevance:
The creation of the aerospace transport of the future will allow:
- fly over ultra-long, practically unlimited distances;
- actively explore near-earth space and other planets;
- to strengthen the defense capability of our state;
- creation of space power plants and production facilities;
- creation of large orbital complexes;
- to extract and process minerals of the Moon and other planets;
- solving environmental problems of the Earth;
- withdrawal of artificial earth satellites;
- develop aerospace tourism.
Targets and goals:
- study the history of the development of spacecraft in Russia and the United States;
- make a comparative analysis of the use of aerospace transport of the future;
- consider the main directions of using PTS (advanced transport systems);
- determine the prospects for the development of transport systems.
2. The main part.
2.1 The history of the development of aerospace ships.
In 1903, the Russian scientist K.E. Tsiolkovsky designed a rocket for interplanetary communications. 
Under the leadership of Sergei Pavlovich Korolev, the first in the world was created rocket R-7 ("Vostok"), which on October 4, 1957 launched the first artificial Earth satellite into space, and on April 12, 1961, the spacecraft made the first manned flight into space.
Vostok rockets were replaced by a new generation of disposable spacecraft: Soyuz, Progress and Proton, their design turned out to be simple, reliable and cheap, it is still in use today and will be used in the near future.
"Union" It was very different from the Vostok rocket in its large size, internal volume and new on-board systems that made it possible to solve problems associated with the creation of orbital stations. The first rocket launch took place on April 23, 1967. A series of transport unmanned cargo spaceships was created on the basis of the Soyuz spacecraft « Progress", which provided the delivery of cargo to the space station. The first launch took place on January 20, 1978. "Proton"- a launch vehicle (LV) of a heavy class, designed to launch into Space orbital stations, manned spacecraft, heavy Earth satellites and interplanetary stations. The first launch took place on July 16, 1965.
Among American spaceships, I would like to note "Apollo"- the only spaceship in history at the moment, on which people left the limits of low-earth orbit, overcame the gravity of the Earth, made a successful landing of astronauts on the Moon and their return to Earth. The spacecraft consists of a main unit and a lunar module (landing and takeoff stages), in which astronauts land and take off from the moon. From 1968 to 1975, 15 spaceships were launched into the sky.
In the distant 70s, engineers dreamed of creating spaceships of the future that would be able to transport goods and people into orbit, and then safely return to Earth, and be in service again. The American design was a reusable transport ship Space Shuttle, which was planned to be used as a shuttle between the Earth and near-earth orbit, delivering payloads and people back and forth. Space flights were carried out 135 times from April 12, 1981 to July 21, 2011.
A Soviet-Russian development was a reusable transport winged spacecraft "Buran". An important step towards the exploration of outer space was the development of the Energia-Buran, a universal reusable rocket and space system. Which consists of a super-powerful launch vehicle "Energia" and a reusable orbital spacecraft "Buran".
This ship is capable of delivering up to 30 tons of cargo into orbit. Orbital ship "Buran" is designed to perform transport and military tasks, as well as orbital operations in space. After completing the tasks, the ship is capable of independently descending in the atmosphere, and horizontal landing at the airfield. It made its first flight on November 15, 1988. Reusable spacecraft projects are expensive, and at present scientists are improving and reducing operating costs, which will effectively allow the use of this type of spacecraft in the future when creating space industries; reusable spacecraft will be cost-effective, since intensive operation of transport systems will be required.
2.2 Promising transport ships of the future.
Currently, the space industry is not standing still, and many new and promising transport ships of the future are being created:
Space rocket complex "Angara"- a family of advanced modular-type launch vehicles with reusable oxygen-kerosene engines being developed. The missiles are supposed to be of 4 classes (light, medium, heavy and super heavy). The power of this rocket is realized using a different number of universal rocket modules (from 1 to 7), depending on the class of the rocket. The first launch of a light-class rocket took place on July 9, 2014. The launch of the Angara-5 heavy-class rocket took place on December 23, 2014.
Advantages of the Angara launch vehicle:
- quick assembly of a rocket from ready-made modules, depending on the required carrying capacity;
- rocket launch adapted from Russian cosmodromes;
- the rocket is completely manufactured from Russian components;
- environmentally friendly fuel is used;
- in the future, it is planned to produce a reusable first stage engine.
Reusable transport systems ("Rus"). The Perspective Manned Transport System (PTS) "Rus" is a multipurpose manned reusable spacecraft. The PTS will be made in a modular design of the base ship in the form of functionally complete elements - a reentry vehicle and an engine compartment. The ship is planned to be wingless, with a reusable returnable part of a truncated-conical shape. The first launch is planned for 2020.
Designed to perform the following tasks:
- ensuring national security;
- unimpeded access to space;
- expanding the tasks of space production;
- flight and landing on the moon.
Manned reusable spacecraft "Orion"(USA).
The ship is planned to be wingless, with a reusable returnable part of a truncated-conical shape. Designed to deliver people and cargo into space, as well as for flights to the Moon and Mars. The first launch took place on December 5, 2014. The ship retired to a distance of 5.8 thousand km, and then returned back to Earth. On its return, the ship passed the dense layers of the atmosphere at a speed of 32 thousand km / h, and the surface temperature of the ship reached 2.2 thousand degrees. The spacecraft passed all tests, which means it is suitable for flights with people on long distances... The start of flights to other planets is planned for 2019-2020.
Reusable transport spacecraft "Dragon Space X"(USA).
Designed for transporting payloads and people. The first flight took place on December 1, 2010. A crew of up to 7 people and 2 tons of payloads can be on board. Flight duration: from 1 week to 2 years. The production of a transport ship in various modifications is being successfully operated and is planned. The main disadvantage is the expensive operation of this type of spacecraft. In the near future, Dragon Space X plans to reuse the first and second stages, which will significantly reduce the cost of space launches.
Consider promising transport spaceships that will fly ultra-long distances .
Interplanetary spaceship "Pilgrim". In the United States, the NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) program has been created to design an interplanetary spacecraft based on a miniature nuclear reactor. It is planned that the propulsion system will be combined and the nuclear reactor will start working when the ship leaves the earth's orbit. In addition, after the completed mission, the ship will be put on a trajectory on which it will move away from our land. This type of power plant is very reliable and will not have a negative impact on the earth's environment.
Our country is the world leader in space energy. Currently under development transport and energy module based on a megawatt class nuclear power plant. Almost the entire scientific potential of Russia is working on this program. The launch of a spacecraft with a nuclear power plant is scheduled for 2020. This type of power plant can operate for a long time without refueling. Transport ships with a nuclear power plant (nuclear power plant) will be able to fly over very long, practically unlimited distances, and will allow the exploration of deep space.
Comparative table of promising spaceships.
|
Spaceship |
The country |
Range of flight |
Engine |
Carrying capacity |
First launch date |
|
|
Space rocket complex "Angara" |
Booster (reusable) |
Oxygen-kerosene |
From 1.5 to 35 t |
|||
|
Reusable transport systems "Rus" |
Manned, reusable |
planetary; Moon, Mars |
fuel |
|||
|
"Orion" |
Manned, reusable |
Moon, Mars |
||||
|
« Dragon space x» |
Manned, reusable |
|||||
|
"Pilgrim" |
Reusable |
planetary |
Nuclear, combined |
|||
|
Transport and energy module |
reusable |
long distances |
Nuclear, combined |
The most promising transport ship of the future is a ship with a nuclear power plant, since it has a power-hungry motor and can fly ultra-long distances. The nuclear system is 3 times superior to conventional installations. After resolving issues with safe operation, this type of spacecraft will be able to make a breakthrough in the study of outer space.
2.3 The main directions of use and development of PTS (promising transport systems)
|
The main directions of the use of PTS |
||||||||
|
Scientific |
Industrial |
Tourist |
Military |
|||||
|
Exploration of space and other planets |
Research and scientific work in space |
Launching cargo and Earth satellites into low-earth orbit |
Construction and maintenance of orbital complexes |
Creation and maintenance of space power plants and industries |
Moving payloads from other planets |
|||
To create the aerospace transport of the future, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:
- the power plants of the vehicle should be equipped with more capacious energy sources than the fuel currently used (nuclear power plants, plasma and ion engines);
- promising power plants should be modular, depending on the flight range. Power plants should be performed with low, medium and high power. Small - for servicing near-earth orbits, medium - transportation of goods to the Moon and other nearby planets, large - for flights of interplanetary complexes to Mars and other distant planets. Long-range interplanetary manned complexes, due to their heavy weight, must be assembled from modules in near-earth orbit. Docking of these modules should be done automatically, without human intervention.
- promising systems must have a high degree of reliability to ensure environmental safety;
Spacecraft should be operated in manned and unmanned modes, with the possibility of remote control from the Earth. To carry out manned flights, interplanetary spacecraft must have all types of protection for the normal existence of all crew members.
3. Conclusion
The paper provides examples of the latest promising developments in transport systems in Russia and the United States, which will be built according to the following principles:
Universal modular design;
Use of energy efficient power plants;
The ability to assemble modules in space;
High degree of vehicle automation;
Remote control capability;
Environmental Safety;
Safe operation of the ship and crew.
After solving these problems, the PTS will make it possible to actively explore outer space, create production in space, develop space tourism, and solve scientific and military problems.
Despite the fact that we managed to collect a lot of information, I would like to continue the work in the following areas:
The use of new types of fuel in the OB van;
Improving the systems for the safe operation of the comic ships of the future.
4. Sources of information:
1. Angara - booster rocket, - Wikipedia - free Internet encyclopedia, https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/angara_(booster rocket), date of treatment 11/29/2014;
2. Gryaznov G.M. Space nuclear energy and new technologies (Director's Notes), -M: FSUE "TsNIIatominform", 2007;
3. Emelianenkov A. Tug in weightlessness, - Rossiyskaya Gazeta, http://www.rg.ru/2012/10/03/raketa.html, access date 01.12.2014;
4. Korolev Sergey Pavlovich, - Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia, https://ru.wikipedua.org/wiki/Korolev ,_Sergei Pavlovich, date of treatment 11/28/2014;
5. Spacecraft "Orion", - Objective X, beyond the visible, http://www.objectiv-x.ru/kosmicheskie-korabli-buduschego/kosmicheskiy_korabl_orion.html, access date - 02.12.2014;
6. Spaceship Rus, - Objective X, beyond the visible, http://www.objectiv-x.ru/kosmicheskie-korabli-buduschego/kosmicheskij-korabl-rus.html, date of treatment 12/02/2014;
7. Legostaev V.P., Lopota V.A., Sinyavsky V.V. Prospects and effectiveness of the use of space nuclear power plants and nuclear electric propulsion systems, - Space technology and technology №1 2013, Rocket and space corporation "Energia" them. S.P. Koroleva, http://www.energia.ru/ktt/archive/2013/01-01.pdf, date of treatment 11/23/2014;
8. Perspective manned transport system, -Wikipedia - a free Internet encyclopedia, https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/perspective_manned_training_system, date of access 24.11.2014;
SCIENCE HORIZONS
Aerospace
transport to VL VI11R GP
With a powerful push, the rocket rises vertically from the launch pad and goes up ... This is a familiar one since the 1960s. the picture may soon sink into oblivion. Disposable space systems and "shuttles" should be replaced by a new generation of vehicles - aerospace aircraft, which will have the ability to take off and land horizontally, like conventional airliners
H -. , "Л *" -, (/
3. KRAUSE. A. M. Kharitonov
KRAUSE Egon - Professor Emeritus, SP 973 to 1998 - Director of the Aerodynamic Institute of the Rhine-Westphalian Technical School (GOASh ^ "(Ax ^ n, Germany). Laureate of the Max Dlanck Society Prize, Ph.D. Doctor of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences ~
XAPMTOHCJP Anatoly. Mikhailovich - Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professorial Research Fellow at the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics named after S. A. Khristianovich SB RAS (Novosibirsk). Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation, laureate of the USSR Council of Ministers Prize (1985). Author and co-author of about 150 scientific papers and 2 patents
The further development of cosmonautics is determined by the need for intensive operation of space stations, the development of global communication and navigation systems, and monitoring of the environment on a planetary scale. For these purposes, the leading countries of the world are developing reusable air-space aircraft (VKS), which will significantly reduce the cost of delivering goods and people to orbit. These will ¡be systems characterized by capabilities, [the most relevant of which are the following:
Multiple use for launching production and scientific and technical cargoes into orbit with a relatively short time interval between repeated flights;
Return of damaged and spent structures that litter space;
Rescue of crews of orbital stations and spaceships in emergency situations;
Urgent reconnaissance of areas of natural disasters and catastrophes anywhere in the world.
In countries with developed aerospace
technologies have made great strides in the field of high flight speeds, which determine the potential for creating a wide range of hypersonic air-jet aircraft. There is every reason to believe that in the future manned aircraft will master speeds from Mach numbers M = 4-6 to M = 12-15 (while the record M = 6.7, set back in 1967 by the American experimental aircraft Kh-15 with a rocket engine).
If speak about civil aviation, then mastering high speeds is extremely important for intensifying passenger transportation and business connections. Hypersonic passenger aircraft with Mach 6 will be able to provide a low-fatigue duration of the flight (no more than 4 hours) on international routes with a range of about 10 thousand km, such as Europe (Paris) - South America (Sao Paulo), Europe (London) - India , USA (New York) - Japan. Recall that the flight time of the supersonic Concorde from New York to Paris was about 3 hours, and the Boeing 747 spends about 6.5 hours on this route. Aircraft of the future with Mach 10
DICTIONARY OF AERODYNAMIC TERMS
Mach number is a parameter that characterizes how many times the speed of an aircraft (or gas flow) is greater than the speed of sound Hypersonic speed is a loose term for a speed with a Mach number exceeding 4 5 Reynolds number is a parameter that characterizes the relationship between inertial forces and viscous forces in stream
Angle of attack - the inclination of the wing plane to the flight line Compaction shock (shock wave) - a narrow flow region in which a sharp drop in the speed of a supersonic gas flow occurs, leading to an abrupt increase in density Rarefaction wave is a flow region in which a sharp decrease in the density of the gaseous medium
Scheme of the model of the two-stage aerospace system E1_AS-EOE. These vehicles will take off and land horizontally, just like conventional airplanes. It is assumed that the length of the full-scale configuration will be 75 m, and the wingspan - 38 m.Po: (Reybl, Yakobe, 2005)
in 4 hours they will be able to cover 16-17 thousand km by making a non-stop flight, for example, from the USA or Europe to Australia.
GTaya mao Tai
Hypersonic aircraft require new technologies that are completely different from those inherent in modern aircraft and vertically taking off spacecraft. Of course rocket
the engine produces a lot of thrust, but it consumes huge amounts of fuel, and besides, the rocket must carry the oxidizer on board. Therefore, the use of rockets in the atmosphere is limited to short-term flights.
The desire to solve these complex technical problems has led to the development of various concepts for space transportation systems. The principal direction, which is actively investigated by the world's leading aerospace companies, is the single-stage V CS. Such an aerospace plane, taking off from a conventional airfield, can provide a payload of about 3% of the take-off weight to low-earth orbit. Another concept for reusable systems is two-stage apparatus. In this case, the first stage is equipped with an air-jet engine, and the second is an orbital one, and the separation of the stages is carried out in the range of Mach numbers from 6 to 12 at altitudes of about 30 km.
1980-1990 VKS projects were developed in the USA (NASP), England (HOTOL), Germany (Sänger), France (STS-2000, STAR-H), Russia (VKS NII-1, Spiral, Tu-2000). In 1989, at the initiative of the German Research Society (DFG), joint research of three German centers began:
Rhine-Westphalian Technical School in Aachen, the Technical University of Munich and the University of Stuttgart. These centers, sponsored by DFG, conducted a long-term research program that included the study of fundamental issues necessary for the design of space transportation systems, such as general engineering, aerodynamics, thermodynamics, flight mechanics, engine, materials, etc. A significant part of the work on experimental aerodynamics was carried out in cooperation with the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics. S. A. Khristianovich SB RAS. The organization and coordination of all research work was carried out by a committee, which for ten years was headed by one of the authors of this article (E. Krause). We bring to the attention of the reader some of the most illustrative visual materials illustrating some of the results obtained in the framework of this project in the field of aerodynamics.
The flight of the two-stage ELAC-EOS system should cover the widest range of speeds: from overcoming the sound barrier (M = 1) to the separation of the orbital stage (M = 7) and its entry into low-earth orbit (M = 25). For: (Rable, Jacobe, 2005)
Sound barrier Mach number
SCIENCE HORIZONS
Large model ELAC 1 (more than 6 m long) in the test section of the German-Dutch low-speed wind tunnel DNW. For: (Rable, Jacobe, 2005)
Aaóóñóó "i áí ^ áóáy ñeñóálá ELAC-EOS
For research, the concept of a two-stage aerospace vehicle was proposed (the carrier stage was called ELAC in German, orbital - EOS). Fuel is liquid hydrogen. It was assumed that the full-scale ELAC configuration would have a length of 75 m, a wingspan of 38 m and a high sweep r / head. The length of the EOS stage is 34 m, and the wingspan is 18 m. The orbital stage has an elliptical nose, a central hull with a semi-cylindrical upper side and one keel in the plane of symmetry. On the upper surface of the first stage there is a recess in which the orbital stage is located during climb. Although shallow, at hypersonic speeds during separation (M = 7) it has a significant effect on flow characteristics.
For theoretical and experimental studies, several models of the carrier and orbital stages at a scale of 1: 150 were designed and manufactured. For tests at low speeds in the German-Dutch wind tunnel DNW, a large model of the investigated configuration was made at a scale of 1:12 (length over 6 m, weight about 1600 kg).
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Flight at supersonic speed is very difficult for a researcher, since it is accompanied by the formation of shock waves, or shock waves, and the aircraft in such a flight passes through several flow regimes (with various local structures), accompanied by an increase in heat fluxes.
This problem in the ELAC-EOS project was investigated both experimentally and numerically. Most of the experiments have been done in aerodynamics.
Oil-soot pattern of streamlines on the surface of the ELAC 1 model, obtained in a T-313 wind tunnel of the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, SB RAS. According to: (Krause et al., 1999)
Comparison of the results of numerical simulation of vortex structures on the leeward side of the E1.AC 1 model (right) and experimental visualization by the laser knife method (left). The results of numerical calculations were obtained by solving the Navier-Stokes equations for laminar flow at Mach number M = 2, Reynolds number Je = 4 10e, and angle of attack a = 24 °. The calculated vortex patterns are similar to those observed experimentally; there are differences in the transverse shapes of individual vortices. Note that the incoming flow is perpendicular to the plane of the picture. Po: (EKOTERD e? A /., 1996)
chimney T-313 ITAM SB RAS in Novosibirsk. The freestream Mach number in these experiments varied in the range 2< М < 4, число Рейнольдса - 25 106 < Ие < 56 106, а г/гол атаки - в диапазоне - 3° < а < 10°. При этих параметрах измерялось распределение давлений, аэродинамические силы и моменты, а также выполнялась визуализация линий тока на поверхности модели.
The results obtained clearly demonstrate, among other things, the formation of vortices on the leeward side. Panoramic patterns of currents on the surface of the model were visualized by coating with special fluids or oil-and-oil mixture. In a typical oil / oil imaging example, surface streamlines are seen curling inward from the leading edge of the wing and flowing into a line oriented approximately in the direction of flow. There are also other stripes directed towards the centerline of the model.
These clear traces on the leeward side characterize the crossflow, the three-dimensional structure of which can be observed using the laser knife method. With an increase in the angle of attack, the air flow flows from the windward wing surface to the leeward surface, forming a complex vortex system. Note that primary vortices with reduced pressure in the core make a positive contribution to the lift of the spacecraft. The laser knife method itself is based on photographing coherent radiation scattered
Vortex bubble in transition state
Fully developed vortex spiral
The decay of vortices on the leeward side of the ELAC 1 configuration was visualized by injecting fluorescent paint. For: (Stromberg, Limberg, 1993)
¡I AM THE HORIZONS OF SCIENCE
on solid or liquid microparticles introduced into the flow, the concentration distribution of which is determined by the structure of the flows under study. A coherent light source is formed in the form of a thin light plane, which, in fact, gave the name to the method. Interestingly, from the point of view of providing the necessary image contrast, microparticles of ordinary water (fog) are very effective.
Under certain conditions, vortex cores can collapse, which reduces the lift of the wing. This process, called vortex disruption, develops
a “bubble” or “spiral” type, the visual differences between which are demonstrated by a photograph taken using an injection of fluorescent paint. Usually, the bubble regime of vortex stripping precedes the spiral decay.
Useful information on the spectra of supersonic flow around aircraft is given by the Topler shadow method. With its help, inhomogeneities in gas flows are visualized, and shock waves and rarefaction waves are especially clearly visible.
Main lens lens Projection lens Screen (camera)
Light source V g H Inhomogeneity Foucault knife "I
SHADOW TEPLER METHOD
Back in 1867, the German scientist A. Tepler proposed a method for detecting optical inhomogeneities in transparent media, which still has not lost its relevance in science and technology. In particular, it is widely used to study the distribution of air flow density when flowing around aircraft models in wind tunnels.
The optical scheme of one of the method implementations is shown in the figure. A beam of rays from a slit light source is directed by a lens system through the object under study and focuses on the edge of an opaque screen (the so-called Foucault knife). If there are no optical inhomogeneities in the investigated object, then all the rays are delayed by the knife. In the presence of inhomogeneities, the rays will scatter, and some of them, having deviated, will pass above the edge of the knife. By placing a projection lens behind the plane of the Foucault knife, you can project these rays onto the screen (direct into the camera) and get an image of the irregularities.
The considered simplest scheme makes it possible to visualize the density gradients of the medium perpendicular to the edge of the knife, while the density gradients along the other coordinate lead to a displacement of the image along the edge and do not change the illumination of the screen. There are various modifications of the Toepler method. For example, instead of a knife, an optical filter is installed, consisting of parallel stripes of different colors. Or a circular aperture with colored sectors is used. In this case, in the absence of inhomogeneities, rays from different points pass through the same place of the diaphragm, so the entire field is colored in one color. The appearance of irregularities causes the deflection of rays that pass through different sectors, and the images of points with different deflection of light are colored in the corresponding colors.
Head shock
Fan of rarefaction waves
Compaction shock
This shadow pattern of the flow around the EbAC 1 model was obtained by the Toepler optical method in a supersonic wind tunnel in Aachen. Po: (Nepe! E? A /., 1993)
A shadow photograph of the flow around the E1.AC 1 model with an air intake in a hypersonic shock tube (M = 7.3) in Aachen. The beautiful rainbow flashes in the lower right part of the image represent chaotic currents inside the air intake. For: (Olivier et al., 1996)
The theoretical distribution of the Mach numbers (velocities) for the flow around the two-stage configuration E1_AC-EOE (the freestream Mach number M = 4.04). By: (Breitsumter et al., 2005)
Good agreement was observed between the calculated and experimental data, which confirms the reliability of the numerical solution for predicting hypersonic flows. An example of a calculated pattern of the distribution of Mach numbers (velocities) in a stream during the separation process is presented on this page. Compaction shocks and local rarefaction are visible on the vow. In reality, the rear part of the EbAC 1C configuration will not have rarefaction, since there will be a hypersonic ramjet engine.
Separating the carrier and orbital stages is one of the most difficult tasks addressed during the ELAC-EOS project. For the sake of safe maneuvering, this phase of flight requires particularly careful study. Numerical studies of its * various phases were carried out at the SFB 255 center at the Technical University of Munich, and all experimental work was carried out at the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics of the SB RAS. Tests in the T-313 supersonic wind tunnel included visualization of the flow around the full configuration and measurements of aerodynamic characteristics and surface pressures during stage separation.
The ELAC 1C lower stage model differed from the original ELAC 1 version by a shallow compartment in which the orbital stage should be located during takeoff and climb. Computer simulation was carried out with the freestream Mach number M = 4.04, Reynolds number -Re = 9.6 106, and zero angle of attack of the EOS model.
In general, it can be said that the studies of the aerodynamic concept of the two-stage systems ÜiELAC-EOS, initiated by the German Research Society DFG, have been successful. As a result of an extensive set of theoretical and experimental works in which participated scientific centers Europe, Asia, America and Australia, a full calculation of a configuration capable of horizontal take-off and landing at a standard airport was performed, aerodynamic
flight tasks at low, supersonic and especially hypersonic speeds.
It is now clear that the creation of a promising aerospace transport requires more detailed research on the development of hypersonic air-jet engines that reliably operate in a wide range of flight speeds, high-precision control systems for the separation of stages and landing of an orbital module, new high-temperature materials, etc. ... The solution of all these complex scientific and technical problems is impossible without combining the efforts of scientists from different countries. And the experience of this project only confirms: long-term international cooperation is becoming an integral part of aerospace research.
Literature
Kharitonov A.M., Krause E., Limberg W. et al. // J. Experiments in Fluids. - 1999. - V. 26. - P. 423.
Brodetsky M. D., Kharitonov A. M., Krause E. et al. // J. Experiments in Fluids. - 2000. - V. 29. - P. 592.
Brodetsky M. D., Kharitonov A. M., Krause E. et al. // Proc. at X Int. Conference on the Methods of Aemphysical Research. Novosibirsk. - 2000. -V.1.- P. 53.
Krause E., Brodetsky M.D., Kharitonov A.M. // Proc. at WFAM Congress. Chicago, 2000.
Brodetsky M.D., Krause E., Nikiforov S.B. et al. // PMTF. - 2001 .-- T. 42 .-- S. 68.
The miracle did not happen, as at the beginning of the third millennium, when we, according to Ray Bradbury, were supposed to colonize Mars. They often talk about the prophecies of science fiction, but one should not forget about unsuccessful forecasts - catastrophically beautiful, but still failures.
Where are the flying cars?
There is a technique under this name, but in reality it is only a hybrid of a car with an airplane. And though the latest designs look futuristic, they are very, very expensive and bear little resemblance to the anti-gravity transport in the "Fifth Element". Farther away from him other developments similar in design to a helicopter, or at all equipped with a parachute and a rear propeller... Here another fantasy comes to mind rather - Carlson, who lives on the roof. Charming, but there is no smell of innovation here.
In films and computer games, another version of the individual transport flashed - a jetpack. He has been featured in Star Wars and Robocop, for example. But even here it did not come to mass use, and it is unlikely that it will soon reach - there is only enough fuel for half a minute of flight, and these volumes cost a round sum.
We ourselves, apparently, do not expect miracles so much that we rejoice even at such a creation of the Chinese innovative genius as the "portal bus". But it is real, like the monorail in Moscow or Japanese train with a speed of up to 603 km / h.
And yet, for the human imagination, boundaries are unacceptable. Science fiction of the past, and just the fantasies of our ancestors about the future have acquired a special charm and a new name - "retrofuturism". A romantic, enthusiastic love for technology and a desire to anticipate future discoveries - this can both touch and inspire today.
Reinvent the wheel
Even before the car wanted to "lift in the air", there were ideas to improve it. And the most important thing is to reinvent the wheel in a new way! A Japanese magazine in 1936 introduced a concept car with balls instead of regular tires: according to the authors, this idea would provide a smooth ride for the transport. Not such a pointless idea, even according to modern engineers. In 2016, a similar development presented by the American company Goodyear, the largest tire manufacturer.
Gigantomania gave birth to another imaginary miracle of technology - a ship on huge wheels, which, according to the inventor, was supposed to plow the sands of the Sahara and solve the problem with transport in the region. Struggle against samums and other disasters of the desert, including heat, was foreseen by the design, and the engineer promised "a trip that will turn into a pleasant journey through those places where thousands of generations fought in vain with natural forces and died in an unequal struggle." This is how the magazine "Vokrug Sveta" wrote about it in 1927. It is not known how successful the idea was - it didn’t come to implementation anyway. Although it can be assumed that the promised air-conditioning of such a machine, and even the overcoming of the sands with cogwheels, would take a lot of resources.
For public use however, it was the compact models that were offered. In 1947, engineer Eduard Vereiken from Brussels patented a dicycling, a self-propelled carriage that consisted of two huge wheels and an open cockpit in the middle. The inventor himself claimed that transport can accelerate to 185 km / h - but it's hard to believe. And the safety of passengers remains in question. Only in the Swedish analogue of 1999, by Jonas Bjerkholtz, all design problems were taken into account. But use it now just for the entertainment of the public.
Trains were another favorite theme for engineers and dreamers. Many hopes were pinned on monorails, although they were presented in a rather unusual way - for example, this way or this way. But also conventional trains seen much more perfect in the future - comfortable, spacious, and even with a view of the stars.
"Ship of the Desert" according to the 1927 version.
A helicopter for each person!
Where the fantasy unfolded to its fullest - it was a flying vehicle. The imagination of our ancestors gave rise to saucer-like planes, and planes with wings below and turbo engines in the bow, and even submarine planes. Not to mention, you can also browse the galleries on Reddit or keyword collections on Pinterest yourself.
But what is especially touching in all these projects is the belief in the general availability of transport of the future. A man has just conquered the air, and American magazines write: "Helicopters for Everybody!" ("Helicopters to every home!"). And among all these press clippings almost a century ago, you can see drawings of private planes. At that time, they really expected from the future only striving upward, and scientific progress, and the quality of life of everyone.
Do you believe in it now, when you stand in a traffic jam during rush hour? Or when you shake on the top shelf second-class carriage? Clutching a smartphone in your hand, the processing power of which is known to be higher than NASA equipment in 1969?
The XXI century has not yet taken place - it certainly did not take place the way fans of technical progress expected it. But the future, as it turned out, is unpredictable. At a slow pace, but it comes - we invite you to familiarize yourself with the futuristic transport of the present.
Today's future
Segway has become one of the most fashionable types of personal transport for Lately, a technologically advanced competitor for bicycles and scooters. What makes it futuristic? You will have to "steer" exclusively with your body: the gyroscope and other sensors in its device react to tilt. And only you will have to turn it with a handle or a special column. The control of a gyro scooter and a monocycle is completely intuitive - it must be said that it is these varieties that are popular today.
In Naberezhnye Chelny and Moscow, even the police use segway. In many cities, rental offices have appeared where you can temporarily become the owner of a two-wheeled "self-propelled carriage" or unicycle. On the market, an unicycle can cost up to half a million rubles, but for 20-30 thousand it is quite possible to buy a unicycle that can withstand 15 kilometers without recharging.
Another representative of modern electric transport is the electric car. Having been invented even earlier than the usual fuel-fueled cars, it still remains a symbol of the future. There are many reasons for this: saving resources, and environmental friendliness, and independence from the conjuncture of the oil market. Today it is easiest to ride an electric car, especially for residents of Moscow and St. Petersburg: just contact a taxi service, which has such models in its fleet. In Yandex.Taxi, for example, not so long ago one of the most advanced electric cars appeared, the Tesla Model S. Its capabilities are impressive: in just a few seconds it can accelerate to 100 km / h, while the course is practically silent.
The most innovative transport known to Russians is, of course, the Moscow monorail, the “thirteenth metro line”. It began to function in full measure back in 2008, but even now not all residents of the regions have heard of it. As if descended from the same retro-futuristic clippings from magazines, but adapted to reality, the monorail is the favorite of the public. The location of the road amazes the imagination - this is an overpass, that is, the train route passes completely over Moscow. The route runs from the Timiryazevskaya station to Sergei Eisenstein Street. True, recently there have been talks about dismantling the track, although the last word is still a proposal to make it a "tourist object". Payback, as it turned out, was a serious problem for this pilot road.
So, overcoming the difficulties of the modern world order, the future is nevertheless slowly approaching. Will levitating cars and a teleportation booth in every yard await us in the coming decades? Unlikely. Will the transport of the future be similar to what we can imagine? Also unlikely. And it’s not that bad.
We have long been accustomed to the presence of public transport stops not far from home, to the daily departure of dozens of trains from the nearest station, and flights from airports. Stop public transport - and the world we are used to will simply collapse! But, getting used to the convenience, we begin to demand even more! What development awaits us?
Highway - pipes
Creepy traffic is one of the leading problems in all metropolitan areas. They are often caused not only by poor organization of transport interchanges and highways, but also by meteorological conditions. Why go far: Russian snowfalls often lead to road collapses.
One of the most effective solutions is to hide the bulk of traffic flows underground. The number and size of car tunnels has only grown over the years. But they are expensive and limited in development by the landscape. These problems can be solved by replacing the tunnels with pipes!
Henry Lew, an American engineer and builder, has already proposed his design for a pipeline for transportation. It will be able to transport large freight containers driven by electricity. Considered his project for use in New York, famous for its huge traffic jams. Only in this city is the transfer freight transport in pipes will reduce the movement of cars in just a year by tens of billions of miles. As a result, the ecological situation will improve, the load on the highways of the metropolis will decrease. One should not forget about the safety and timeliness of cargo delivery.
It is also possible to transport people in such pipelines. A similar passenger transport system was proposed by Elon Musk, an American millionaire. The "Hyperloop" of the Mask will include a system of pipelines located on overpasses, the diameter of which will exceed a couple of meters. It is planned to maintain low pressure in them. It is planned to move the capsules in the pipes, soaring just above the bottom thanks to the air pumped there. The speed of the capsules, thanks to an electromagnetic pulse, can reach six hundred kilometers in half an hour.
Train flights
Trains will develop, becoming more spacious and fast. They are already discussing an incredible-scale project of a highway from London to Beijing, prepared by the Chinese. They want to build a super-high-speed road with a length of eight to nine thousand kilometers by 2020.
Trains will pass under the English Channel, then through Europe, Russia, Astana, Far East and Khabarovsk. From there, the final transfer to Beijing. The whole journey will take a couple of days, the speed limit is 320 km / h. Note here that the Russian "Sapsan" only accelerates to 250 km / h.
But this speed is not the limit! The Maglev train, named after the Magnetic Levitation phrase, easily reaches a speed of 581 km / h. Supported by a magnetic field in the air, it flies over the rails instead of riding on them. Currently, these trains are a rare exotic. But in the future, this technology can be developed.
Car underwater: unrealistic, but it exists!
The revolution is expected in water transport... Experts investigate projects of underwater high-speed vehicles, as well as underwater motorcycles. What can we say about individual submarines!
A project organized in Switzerland called sQuba was created to develop an original car that can go into the water right off the track and, moving along the waves, even dive into them! Then the car can easily return to land, continuing to move along the road.
The designers of the novelty were inspired by one of the James Bond films. A real underwater car, exhibited at the Geneva Motor Show in the form of an open sports car. This model is very light and allows the crew to leave the car in case of danger.
Movement under water is provided by a pair of screws located under the rear bumper, as well as a pair of swivel water cannons near the front wheel arches. All this works with the help of electric motors. Of course, you will have to add a waterproof hood to the model so that the driver and passengers do not get wet.
Ready to go into space?
Aviation, keeping up with other types of transport, is actively developing. Having abandoned supersonic airliners like the Concorde, she decided to go into outer space. British designers are working on a spacecraft, or in other words - an orbital plane called "Skylon".
It will be able to climb from the airfield on a hybrid engine and reach hypersonic speed, it exceeds the sound speed by more than five times. Having reached an altitude of 26 kilometers, he will switch to oxygen supply from his own tanks, and then will go out into space. Landing is like landing an airplane. That is, no external boosters, booster stages, or jet fuel tanks. You only need a couple of engines for the entire flight.
They are still working on an unmanned version of the Skylon. Such a space carrier will be able to put 12 tons of cargo into orbit. Note here that the Soyuz, a Russian rocket, can handle only seven tons. It is possible to use a spaceship, in contrast to a rocket, many times. As a result, the cost of deliveries will decrease 15 times.
In parallel, the designers are thinking about the manned version. By changing the design of the cargo compartment, creating security systems and making windows, three hundred passengers can be transported. In four hours they will circumnavigate the entire planet! The experimental model will be launched in 2019.
Surprisingly, futurologists described all the types of transport we have listed at the dawn of the twentieth century. They hoped that their implementation is not far off. They were wrong with the timing, while everything is at the development stage. But we have a great opportunity - to become in the future a passenger of one of the above-mentioned miracles of technology.
